Online and technology-facilitated trafficking in human beings Summary and recommendations Report prepared by Dr Paolo Campana

By Paolo Campana

Internet, and information communication technology (ICT) more generally, play a major role in shaping our lives. The Covid-19 pandemic has laid bare the extent to which the Internet and ICTs are now integral to a variety of activities and social interactions – and it has accelerated their relevance. The criminal landscape is no exception – and this extends to trafficking in human beings (THB). There is little doubt that technology poses challenges – as well as opportunities – to law enforcement and NGOs alike. At the same time, the evidence base on online and technologyfacilitated THB remains limited and patchy. At the moment, the best evidence available comes from a rather small set of studies, typically based on a small number of interviews with police officers and NGO personnel – often carried out in a very limited number of countries – as well as from a handful of reports from international organisations. This study moves beyond anecdotal evidence by offering an analysis of online and technology-facilitated THB based on evidence systematically collected from State Parties to the Council of Europe (CoE) Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. Such evidence has been supplemented with information from NGOs providing assistance to THB victims as well as tech companies. The scope of the present study is rather broad. It offers an assessment of the extent to which technology impacts THB as well as an exploration of the traffickers’ modus operandi in the context of online and technology-facilitated THB. At the core of this study is an exploration of the operational and legal challenges that State Parties – and to some extent NGOs – face in detecting, investigating and prosecuting online and ICT-facilitated THB, as well as identifying victims and raising awareness among at-risk groups. Crucially, the study also explores the strategies, tools and ‘good practices’ adopted by State Parties and NGOs to overcome such challenges and enhance their response to online and technology-facilitated THB. This work teases out similarities across countries as well as country-specific experiences. Particular emphasis is placed on training – as investments in human capital are as important as those in technical tools. This study has been conducted as part of a long-standing interest of the Council of Europe in the issue of technology and human trafficking. Besides offering a systematic assessment of the current evidence base, this study also seeks to provide the Council of Europe Group of Experts of Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) and other entities with a tool to carry out future assessments and track changes in both the technological and behavioural landscapes.

the impact of technology on trafficking of human beings is of particular concern during two stages of the trafficking process: recruitment and exploitation. Evidence submitted by State Parties points to an “increasing” relevance of technology in the context of THB, with the majority of State Parties now considering the impact of technology on THB to be either “very important” or “important”. State Parties have noted the increasing relevance of online materials, advertisements, and sites/applications (or ‘apps’) in the search for jobs as well as the increasing relevance of online socialisation and personal interactions. In turn, both create opportunities for THB offenders and exacerbate existing vulnerabilities. Technology has changed the way people interact and this is reflected in the criminal landscape, including THB. This is a structural change that law enforcement and criminal justice systems need to adapt to. Technology can play a role in the recruitment stage by facilitating the identification, location and contact of potential victims. Different mechanisms are at play depending on the type of exploitation. In the context of recruitment for sexual exploitation, several State Parties have identified cases of job advertisements linked to THB and uncovered evidence of recruitment via social media platforms as well as dating applications. A common strategy is the so-called “lover boy” technique: a type of online recruitment in which a trafficker identifies and contacts a potential victim via an online platform, gets to know their hobbies and interests as well as their personal and family situations. The trafficker then offers empathy and support to the T potential victim in the context of a romantic relationship – seeking to gain trust and subsequently establish control over the victim. There is ample evidence from several countries of cases of victims’ blackmailing. This is often done by first collecting “compromising” information about the victims—for instance, by asking for naked pictures or videos—and then using the information to coerce them into prostitution. During the exploitation stage, technology can facilitate the sale of sexual services provided by THB victims. There is ample evidence from several countries of Internet websites used to advertise sexual services. Among such advertisements, there are services provided by THB victims. Moreover, while live-streaming is often connected to child sexual abuse, a handful of countries have suggested that such live streaming might also involve adult victims of THB. Further, technology can be used to coordinate activities. Crucially, technology allows for a separation between the place where the sexual activity is performed and the place where coordination takes place. This has important implications for law enforcement. Countries have provided evidence of technological tools used by traffickers to monitor and control victims during the exploitation stage. Blackmail and the use of compromising information against victims can also be used to exert control during this stage. Emerging trends in the context of sexual exploitation noted by various countries include the expansion of “live web cams” and “pay-as-you-go” video chat applications and increasing use of apps to control victims. Such web cams and video chat applications can be used to live stream sexual acts performed by THB victims. A few countries have noted that the Covid-19 pandemic has increased the opportunities for traffickers to establish online contacts with vulnerable individuals. In the context of trafficking for labour exploitation, evidence provided by State Parties indicates that ICTs are mainly employed to recruit victims, particularly through online job advertisements. Such advertisements are not only published on classified job websites, but also posted and circulated on social media in specialised job searching groups and mutual aid groups. Several countries have highlighted the relevance of webpages meant to foster information exchange among migrant workers as a recruiting space targeted by traffickers. An emerging trend in the context of labour exploitation, reported by some countries, includes a rise in cases of recruitment through the Internet and social networks. This is believed to have been accelerated by the outbreak of Covid-19. While technology does not seem to play a noticeable role in the exploitation stage, countries have flagged up the increase of opportunities to exploit THB victims offered by the ‘gig-economy’, particularly delivery platforms. There is no evidence of any relevant role played by the Dark Web in the context of adult THB (the circulation of child sexual exploitation materials is outside the scope of this study). Similarly, cryptocurrencies appear not to be widely used in the context of THB (on the contrary, they are used to purchase live streaming of child sexual abuses). Evidence submitted by NGOs paints a similar picture. They have identified the use of Internet and social media in all stages of human trafficking, and particularly in relation to (a) recruitment; (b) exploitation; and (c) exertion of control and pressure over victims. In addition, traffickers can use ICTs, including social media and encrypted apps, to continue contact with THB victims after they have left the exploitative situation, often to prevent them from filing complaints and seeking justice. Emerging trends based on evidence from NGOs suggest an increase in the exploitation of children via webcam and social media. There have been suggestions that offenders have started to use online games to approach potential victims. Finally, the available evidence base suggests that the use of technology complements rather than substitutes personal, offline interactions. Technology and in-person interactions are best seen as integrated.

Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2022. 39p.