By Michael E. Clements and Gretta L. Goodwin

This Study Drug and human trafficking are longstanding and pervasive problems. Federal law enforcement agencies have noted the use of online marketplaces, such as social media sites and messaging platforms, in drug and human trafficking. Further, agencies have expressed concern about traffickers’ increased use of virtual currencies—that is, digital representations of value that are usually not government-issued legal tender. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021 includes a provision for GAO to review how a range of methods and payment systems, including online marketplaces and virtual currencies, are used to facilitate drug and human trafficking. This report examines what is known about drug and human traffickers’ use of online marketplaces and virtual currencies, efforts by federal and state agencies to counter such trafficking, and benefits and challenges virtual currencies pose for detecting and prosecuting drug and human trafficking, among other objectives. GAO reviewed federal agency and industry documentation and GAO’s relevant body of past work; interviewed officials at federal and state agencies and industry and nonprofit stakeholders; and reviewed recently adjudicated cases involving the use of virtual currencies in drug or human trafficking.

  GAO-22-105101., Washington DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2022. 57p.

By  Talia A. Dunyak 

Over the past several decades, travel and tourism have become both more accessible and cheaper for people. Until the Covid-19 pandemic, tourism was projected to continue growing rapidly in popularity, with estimates that by 2030 more than 1.8 billion people would travel internationally every year. 2 The increase in international and domestic travel and tourism brings benefits such as expanded cultural understanding, economic growth, and preservation of local monuments and traditions. However, despite the benefits of tourism, there is a dark side to the industry: human trafficking. This report seeks to map out the intersections between human trafficking and tourism and focuses primarily on sex trafficking and labor trafficking’s presence within the tourism sector. The discussion of sex trafficking will include sex tourism, child sex tourism, and the use of hotels in the sex trade. The discussion of labor exploitation will include child labor and beggars, hospitality staff, construction staff, and labor trafficking in the supply chain. The report will also touch on how the Covid-19 pandemic has affected and changed modern slavery in the tourism industry. The report will conclude with mapping the current interventions and recommendations for combatting instances of human trafficking within the tourism industry. 

Human Trafficking Search,  2021 28p.

By Amber Horning, Loretta Stalans,

In 2019, the National Institute of Justice funded the University of Massachusetts Lowell and Loyola University Chicago to understand how sex traffickers learn how to facilitate sex work. This study sought to address Priority Area 3 of the NIJ solicitation: Building Knowledge of the "Grooming" Process of Traffickers (i.e., how does one become a sex or labor trafficker?). Previous studies funded by NIJ examined "traffickers' decision-making and organizational processes"; however, much of how one becomes a sex trafficker and its processes remain unexplored. This study provides empirical data to address this critical gap in the knowledge. We use the broader term of sex market facilitator (SMF) rather than sex trafficker as persons involved in facilitation change roles and jobs. Because of their varying roles and tasks, legally qualifying as a sex trafficker can change by day, week, month, or year and often change across the life course. Typically, individuals are involved in multiple roles in the sex trade; these roles can include sex work, recruitment, assisting sex workers or facilitators, and primary facilitation. Sex market facilitation can involve recruiting and scheduling clients for sex workers, protecting workers during interactions with clients, managing operations, and profiting from the sex workers' earnings. In this study, we use the broader term SMF because it includes those who legally qualify for pandering or sex trafficking. As previously mentioned, their legal designation can change quickly or over time. We use the term sex worker as a neutral and inclusive term and are not implying the voluntary or involuntary nature of selling sex. Individuals who sell sex can drift between voluntarily selling sex and being coercive or physically forced to sell sex. The goals of this study were to 1) provide an understanding of the social learning process involved in sex market facilitation, such as who passed down those skills, what is passed down, and how this impacts their recruitment and management strategies 2) evaluate how these social learning processes vary based on participants' prior traumatic experiences and master status designations.1 and 3) establish how participants are socially and criminally networked and how this impacts facilitation. There have been many studies about how sex traffickers recruit sex workers. However, very few studies evaluated how sex traffickers are recruited and learn to recruit sex workers or sex trafficking victims or facilitate sex work, along with facilitation strategies, including interpersonal and economic coercion. This study aimed to close the gap in the literature by investigating the etiology of becoming a sex trafficker or a sex market facilitator and how this knowledge is transmitted across the generations. Research Questions This study aimed to answer three research questions. 1) Are there patterned processes or mechanisms from which older/experienced traffickers teach or model these skills to the pimps2 , main sex workers3 , sex workers, or sex trafficking victims who, over time, recruit other trafficking victims? a) How do the early experiences of SMFs, particularly trauma, contribute to their social learning and recruitment into facilitation? b) Using an intersectional4 lens, how does social learning explain the social processes of sex market facilitation, passing those skills to family, boyfriends/girlfriends, friends, sex workers, sex trafficking victims, or even other SMFs? 2) How do traffickers detect potential recruits' vulnerabilities, and what are the key individual and structural vulnerabilities they target? How is grooming similar and different in New York City and Chicago? 3) How are traffickers socially networked to other traffickers, pimps, and main sex workers, and how is grooming similar and different across social networks in New York City and Chicago?

Lowell, MA: University of Masachusetts Lowell, 2024. 219p.

By  Kelle Barrick, Rebecca Pfeffer, Stephen Tueller, Michael Bradshaw, Natasha Aranguren, Kyle Vincent

To advance knowledge about promising methods for estimating the prevalence of human trafficking in the United States, the Administration for Children and Families’ Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation (OPRE) and the Office on Trafficking in Persons (OTIP) funded a study, conducted by RTI International, to field test two methods of prevalence estimation within one industry in one geographic location in the United States.  

This study, conducted between 2020 and 2024, measured the prevalence of labor trafficking within the construction industry in Houston, Texas, using both time-location sampling (TLS) and link-tracing sampling (LTS). TLS involves developing a sampling frame of venues, days, and times where the population of focus congregates and using a random selection procedure (e.g., every fifth person) to select a representative sample of the population. LTS is a network sampling approach that relies on study participants to recruit their peers to participate in the study. 

  Central to decisions among policymakers, funders, and researchers concerned with addressing human trafficking is the question of the size of the problem. Understandably, these groups seek evidence about the prevalence of human trafficking to guide choices around policies and interventions to prevent and address human trafficking in communities. Several empirical efforts have been established in recent years in response to this quandary, including a series of seven studies included in the Prevalence Reduction Innovation Forum (PRIF) initiative (Center on Human Trafficking Research & Outreach, n.d.), which aims to build evidence about methodologies to estimate the prevalence of human trafficking by testing various estimation methods in various industries in six other countries. In each of these seven studies, two estimation strategies are used to estimate the prevalence of human trafficking among a certain population in a certain area. This dual estimation approach offers insight about both (1) the logistics and feasibility of carrying out each estimation strategy and (2) how the prevalence estimates that they generate compare to one another. The current study was designed as a domestic counterpart to the seven international PRIF studies. Following a comprehensive review of prior human trafficking prevalence studies (see Barrick & Pfeffer, 2021) and a consideration of factors such as industries of identified interest and feasibility of estimation strategies, we chose to focus this study on the prevalence of labor trafficking within the construction industry in Houston, Texas, using both time-location sampling (TLS) and link-tracing sampling (LTS). TLS involves developing a sampling frame of venues, days, and times where the population of focus congregates and using a random selection procedure (e.g., every fifth person) to select a representative sample of the population. LTS is a network sampling approach that relies on study participants to recruit their peers to participate in the study. The objectives of the study were to advance knowledge of promising methods for estimating human trafficking prevalence and to better understand substantive issues around the experiences of construction workers with labor trafficking and other labor exploitation.

Study Findings The LTS sample did not yield a high response rate, and we only include high-level findings from this sample in this report . Even with financial incentive, workers were hesitant to refer their peers to participate in this study, and relatively few referral chains developed. Given the limited number of chains available for analysis and the potential for misleading findings, LTS sample findings are only presented to highlight differences in prevalence estimation strategies. More than one in five construction workers had experienced labor trafficking victimization in their lifetime . Among the TLS sample (n = 903), 22.3% had experienced labor trafficking in construction in their lifetime, 13.2% had experienced labor trafficking within the past 2 years, and 4.2% had experienced or were experiencing labor trafficking in their current job. An additional 42% of construction workers reported experiencing other labor abuses that did not meet the threshold of labor trafficking . Just over one third (35%) of workers had never experienced any labor trafficking or exploitation in the construction industry. Although individual characteristics were assessed as potential risk and protective factors, no significant differences emerged . Given the limited extant research focusing on risk and protective factors for experiencing labor trafficking or other labor abuse in construction, additional work is needed to substantiate the lack of significant findings regarding individual characteristics. Construction work related to natural disaster recovery and reconstruction is associated with a higher prevalence of labor trafficking and other forms of labor abuse . Construction workers who had worked in natural disaster recovery and reconstruction settings were significantly more likely than those who had not to have experienced labor trafficking or other labor abuse. Conclusions and Implications Labor trafficking and other labor abuse in the construction industry are common. About two-thirds of Houston construction workers experienced at least one form of exploitative or abusive labor practice. The types of abuse most frequently experienced by construction workers include working without a contract, deception about working and living conditions, working long and unusual hours without adequate compensation, and paying recruitment fees to get a job. However, nontrivial percentages of construction workers were subjected to more serious forms of abuse, including having their pay withheld, deception about the work they would be doing, and being subjected to emotional or psychological abuse. These findings have implications for policymakers, law enforcement, Departments of Labor and other regulatory agencies, construction unions, workers’ advocacy groups, and anyone concerned about workplace exploitation in the construction industry. Related to prevalence estimation methodologies, we confirmed that data collection and prevalence estimation strategies matter. Although both TLS and LTS are promising approaches for identifying and recruiting construction workers, only TLS proved to be effective in reaching the population. All prevalence estimation research should clearly highlight challenges that occurred during data collection that may impact the validity of the findings and exercise caution in reporting potentially misleading estimates.    

Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2024. 51p.

By Ada Pecos Melton, Rita Martinez | American Indian Development Associates Christina Melander, Elizabeth Tibaduiza, Rebecca Pfeffer | RTI International

The Administration for Children and Families’ (ACF’s) Office on Trafficking in Persons (OTIP) established the Demonstration Grants to Strengthen the Response to Victims of Human Trafficking in Native Communities (VHTNC) Program to address the significant need for supports to respond to human trafficking in Native communities. In September 2020, six projects received 3-year awards to build, expand, and sustain organizational and community capacity to deliver services to Native Americans (i.e., American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and/or Pacific Islanders) who have experienced human trafficking. RTI International and American Indian Development Associates conducted a formative evaluation of the VHT-NC Program, overseen by ACF’s Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation (OPRE), in collaboration with OTIP.

This brief describes how the six VHT-NC projects used culture as a resource, which we define as using or integrating cultural values, beliefs, traditions, and activities into various project strategies and services offered.

We explore how the projects incorporated culture within four programming areas: (1) project staffing, (2), education and training, (3) outreach, and (4) case management and supportive services (see Exhibit 1). This brief is informed by self-reported data from award recipients’ performance progress reports submitted quarterly to ACF and by virtual and in-person interviews conducted between March 2022 and August 2023 with VHT-NC project leadership, advocates,1 partners, and participants.

, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2024. 14p.

By Paolo Campana

Internet, and information communication technology (ICT) more generally, play a major role in shaping our lives. The Covid-19 pandemic has laid bare the extent to which the Internet and ICTs are now integral to a variety of activities and social interactions – and it has accelerated their relevance. The criminal landscape is no exception – and this extends to trafficking in human beings (THB). There is little doubt that technology poses challenges – as well as opportunities – to law enforcement and NGOs alike. At the same time, the evidence base on online and technologyfacilitated THB remains limited and patchy. At the moment, the best evidence available comes from a rather small set of studies, typically based on a small number of interviews with police officers and NGO personnel – often carried out in a very limited number of countries – as well as from a handful of reports from international organisations. This study moves beyond anecdotal evidence by offering an analysis of online and technology-facilitated THB based on evidence systematically collected from State Parties to the Council of Europe (CoE) Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. Such evidence has been supplemented with information from NGOs providing assistance to THB victims as well as tech companies. The scope of the present study is rather broad. It offers an assessment of the extent to which technology impacts THB as well as an exploration of the traffickers’ modus operandi in the context of online and technology-facilitated THB. At the core of this study is an exploration of the operational and legal challenges that State Parties – and to some extent NGOs – face in detecting, investigating and prosecuting online and ICT-facilitated THB, as well as identifying victims and raising awareness among at-risk groups. Crucially, the study also explores the strategies, tools and ‘good practices’ adopted by State Parties and NGOs to overcome such challenges and enhance their response to online and technology-facilitated THB. This work teases out similarities across countries as well as country-specific experiences. Particular emphasis is placed on training – as investments in human capital are as important as those in technical tools. This study has been conducted as part of a long-standing interest of the Council of Europe in the issue of technology and human trafficking. Besides offering a systematic assessment of the current evidence base, this study also seeks to provide the Council of Europe Group of Experts of Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) and other entities with a tool to carry out future assessments and track changes in both the technological and behavioural landscapes.

the impact of technology on trafficking of human beings is of particular concern during two stages of the trafficking process: recruitment and exploitation. Evidence submitted by State Parties points to an “increasing” relevance of technology in the context of THB, with the majority of State Parties now considering the impact of technology on THB to be either “very important” or “important”. State Parties have noted the increasing relevance of online materials, advertisements, and sites/applications (or ‘apps’) in the search for jobs as well as the increasing relevance of online socialisation and personal interactions. In turn, both create opportunities for THB offenders and exacerbate existing vulnerabilities. Technology has changed the way people interact and this is reflected in the criminal landscape, including THB. This is a structural change that law enforcement and criminal justice systems need to adapt to. Technology can play a role in the recruitment stage by facilitating the identification, location and contact of potential victims. Different mechanisms are at play depending on the type of exploitation. In the context of recruitment for sexual exploitation, several State Parties have identified cases of job advertisements linked to THB and uncovered evidence of recruitment via social media platforms as well as dating applications. A common strategy is the so-called “lover boy” technique: a type of online recruitment in which a trafficker identifies and contacts a potential victim via an online platform, gets to know their hobbies and interests as well as their personal and family situations. The trafficker then offers empathy and support to the T potential victim in the context of a romantic relationship – seeking to gain trust and subsequently establish control over the victim. There is ample evidence from several countries of cases of victims’ blackmailing. This is often done by first collecting “compromising” information about the victims—for instance, by asking for naked pictures or videos—and then using the information to coerce them into prostitution. During the exploitation stage, technology can facilitate the sale of sexual services provided by THB victims. There is ample evidence from several countries of Internet websites used to advertise sexual services. Among such advertisements, there are services provided by THB victims. Moreover, while live-streaming is often connected to child sexual abuse, a handful of countries have suggested that such live streaming might also involve adult victims of THB. Further, technology can be used to coordinate activities. Crucially, technology allows for a separation between the place where the sexual activity is performed and the place where coordination takes place. This has important implications for law enforcement. Countries have provided evidence of technological tools used by traffickers to monitor and control victims during the exploitation stage. Blackmail and the use of compromising information against victims can also be used to exert control during this stage. Emerging trends in the context of sexual exploitation noted by various countries include the expansion of “live web cams” and “pay-as-you-go” video chat applications and increasing use of apps to control victims. Such web cams and video chat applications can be used to live stream sexual acts performed by THB victims. A few countries have noted that the Covid-19 pandemic has increased the opportunities for traffickers to establish online contacts with vulnerable individuals. In the context of trafficking for labour exploitation, evidence provided by State Parties indicates that ICTs are mainly employed to recruit victims, particularly through online job advertisements. Such advertisements are not only published on classified job websites, but also posted and circulated on social media in specialised job searching groups and mutual aid groups. Several countries have highlighted the relevance of webpages meant to foster information exchange among migrant workers as a recruiting space targeted by traffickers. An emerging trend in the context of labour exploitation, reported by some countries, includes a rise in cases of recruitment through the Internet and social networks. This is believed to have been accelerated by the outbreak of Covid-19. While technology does not seem to play a noticeable role in the exploitation stage, countries have flagged up the increase of opportunities to exploit THB victims offered by the ‘gig-economy’, particularly delivery platforms. There is no evidence of any relevant role played by the Dark Web in the context of adult THB (the circulation of child sexual exploitation materials is outside the scope of this study). Similarly, cryptocurrencies appear not to be widely used in the context of THB (on the contrary, they are used to purchase live streaming of child sexual abuses). Evidence submitted by NGOs paints a similar picture. They have identified the use of Internet and social media in all stages of human trafficking, and particularly in relation to (a) recruitment; (b) exploitation; and (c) exertion of control and pressure over victims. In addition, traffickers can use ICTs, including social media and encrypted apps, to continue contact with THB victims after they have left the exploitative situation, often to prevent them from filing complaints and seeking justice. Emerging trends based on evidence from NGOs suggest an increase in the exploitation of children via webcam and social media. There have been suggestions that offenders have started to use online games to approach potential victims. Finally, the available evidence base suggests that the use of technology complements rather than substitutes personal, offline interactions. Technology and in-person interactions are best seen as integrated.

Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2022. 39p.

Edited by Marijke Malsch and Janine Janssen

Sex work is often called the oldest profession in the world. It manifests itself in a plethora of forms. A move to private locations is now taking place: contacts are established via the Internet and meetings take place at appointed places. This makes it more difficult to monitor forced work, and exploitation therefore risks remaining undetected. This book presents empirical findings regarding exploitation in various countries, considering sex workers, traffickers and clients, and the fight against human trafficking. Countries differ vastly in their legislative approaches, ranging from highly repressive to very liberal. This volume asks whether the ongoing process of making and changing laws is sufficiently effective in fighting human trafficking. Other interventions could obtain better outcomes, such as promoting more independence among women and helping trafficked individuals to get out. Less ideology and more attention to the facts of exploitation and sex work might help to achieve these aims.

Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2025. 313p.

By Sasha Jesperson, Henrik Alffram, Lisa Denney and Pilar Domingo

 Labour migration and trafficking in persons: a political economy analysis Key messages Multiple scam centres have been identified in Southeast Asia, where recruits are often forced to groom victims online and encourage them to invest in fraudulent schemes, such as cryptocurrency. Targeting more highly skilled and educated individuals seeking work opportunities, recruitment is more organised than other forms of labour exploitation, with individuals trafficked into forced criminality. Scams challenge the existing counter-trafficking response in several ways: The profile of recruits as more highly educated and skilled workers. The existence of two sets of victims – the recruits and their targets. The presence of scam centres, often in poorer countries, reversing conventional labour migration flows. The location of scam centres in Special Economic Zones, which are beyond conventional national jurisdictions.

London: ODI, 2023. 29p.

By Humanity Research Consultancy

In early 2023, campaigners in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia lodged a formal complaint with the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights, the region’s main human rights institution, regarding potentially thousands of victims of trafficking in persons (TIP) for forced criminality in scam compounds, from every single ASEAN country.  A 2023 United Nations report also estimates that hundreds of thousands have fallen victim to this growing trend of human trafficking for forced criminality, trapped in scamming compounds across the Asia region and beyond.  According to media reports and previous investigations undertaken by Humanity Research Consultancy (HRC),  Thailand has been an important hub for this type of crime, acting as a transit, destination and source country due to its geographical proximity to scamming compound hotspots across the region. Nevertheless, the extent of Thailand and its citizens’ involvement in these crimes, namely Thai authorities’ responses to the issue, remain unclear to the public, as well as to counter-human trafficking organisations. This research aims to address this gap, forming a valuable contribution to the current body of knowledge in order to enhance understanding and develop effective strategies, by identifying best practices, to combat human trafficking for forced criminality in Thailand. This report provides an overview of trafficking for forced criminality involving Thailand, covering the trafficking routes, modus operandi and trends related to TIP for forced criminality. It also outlines the legal frameworks in Thailand to address forced criminality at the domestic, bilateral and regional levels. Additionally, the report encompasses a breakdown of demographics and characteristics of vulnerable groups targeted by traffickers, including disaggregated data of Thai and non-Thai victims of TIP for forced criminality in Thailand. Finally, the report outlines the challenges and obstacles faced in addressing trafficking for forced criminality, particularly with regard to the actions of Thai law enforcement and government bodies, as well as local nongovernmental organizations working to counter these crimes in the region    

Little Rick, AR: Winrock International, 2024.   38p.