By John Stone

Historical Context: The study of race relations became central insociology post-World War II, influenced by decolonization and civilrights movements.

Power Dynamics: Minority groups' power and influence are crucial in understanding racial conflicts and social changes.

Global Perspective: Racial and ethnic conflicts are not limited to the West but are a global phenomenon, affecting socialist and capitalist societies alike.

Social Institutions: Race relations impact various social institutions, including education, employment, and legal systems, highlighting the complexity of achieving racial justice.

Fontana Press / Collins, 1985, 191 pages

By Herbert Adolphus Miller, PH.D.

Group Dynamics: The book explores the psychology of domination and freedom within groups, emphasizing the importance of mutual understanding and the development of sentiments for resolving conflicts.

Americanization: It discusses the challenges and paradoxes of Americanization, highlighting the need for a rational and empathetic approach to integrating immigrants.

Pseudo-Science Critique: The author criticizes the misuse of pseudo-science in justifying social hierarchies and emphasizes the need for genuine scientific methods.

Historical Context: The book provides a historical analysis of various social and political conflicts, drawing lessons from past mistakes to suggest better approaches for the future.

Read-Me.Org, 2024, 196 pages

By Philip Mason

Purpose and Scope: The book aims to introduce the subject of race relations, drawing on various academic disciplines like biology, psychology, and social anthropology.

Race and Behavior: The author argues that race itself does not determine intelligence or behavior, but beliefs about race significantly impact human behavior and societal structures.

Historical Context: The book discusses historical examples of race relations, including colonialism, slavery, and apartheid, highlighting their long-term effects on societies.

Intelligence: The text explores the concept of intelligence,distinguishing between innate and acquired intelligence, and emphasizes the role of environment and societal expectations in shaping intellectual capacities.

Oxford University Press, 1970, 181 pages

By Prem Mahadevan, Maria Khoruk, and Alla Mohamad Mohmandzaï

The fall of Kabul in August 2021 marked the onset of a fourth wave of distress migration from Afghanistan in the last 50 years, a departure from the relative stability during the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2001-21). This research, conducted in collaboration with the Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime (GI-TOC), unveils the pervasive features of Afghan migrant smuggling and examines the ramifications of the Taliban's resurgence on human mobility.

Drawing from extensive interviews with successful migrants, those who attempted but failed, as well as the smugglers and financiers integral to their journeys, the study elucidates the enduring presence of an illicit economy crucial not only for Afghanistan but also for the broader region and the Global North.

This research study pursues a twofold objective: firstly, it analyses preliminary findings, providing insights into the evolving dynamics of human mobility post-Kabul's fall on August 15, 2021. Secondly, it addresses a literature gap by exploring the role of informal value transfer systems (IVTS) in clandestine Afghan migration. Although the study doesn't offer a comprehensive overview, it paints a vivid, albeit impressionistic, picture of contemporary Afghan clandestine movement, shaped by the experiences of migrants, their families, and those offering migrant smuggling services. These insights pave the way for a future research agenda.

Key takeaways emphasise the volatile nature of the irregular migration market in Afghanistan, requiring adaptability from those seeking an escape. The study underscores the significant role of IVTS like hawala in the Afghan human smuggling economy, with hawala brokers' trust and credibility further legitimising human smugglers. In irregular migration hotspots, IVTS serve as an integral part of the human smuggling infrastructure. Additionally, shared ethnic backgrounds establish trust relationships and are frequently leveraged by human smugglers and money transfer service providers. While enhanced barriers may increase migration costs and risks, they are unlikely to deter further migration driven by perceived economic and security imperatives, further deepening migrants' reliance on smuggler services.

Birmingham, UK: University of Birmingham. 2023, 33pg