By Genevieve LeBaron, Neil Howard, Cameron Thibos and Penelope Kyritsis .

It is by now widely recognised that effectively tackling forced labour in the global economy means addressing its ‘root causes’. Policymakers, business leaders and civil society organisations all routinely call for interventions that do so.1-2 Yet what exactly are these root causes? And how do they operate? The two most commonly given answers are ‘poverty’ and ‘globalisation’.3 Although each may be foundational to forced labour, both terms are typically used in nebulous, catch-all ways that serve more as excuses than explanations. Both encompass and obscure a web of decisions and processes that maintain an unjust status quo, while being used as euphemisms for deeper socio-economic structures that lie at the core of the capitalist global economy. The question thus becomes: exactly which aspects of poverty and globalisation are responsible for the endemic labour exploitation frequently described with the terms forced labour, human trafficking or modern slavery? Which global economic processes ensure a constant and low-cost supply of highly exploitable and coerced workers? And which dynamics trigger a demand among businesses for their exploitation, making it possible for them to profit from it? This 12-part report is an attempt to answer these questions in a rigorous yet accessible way. With it, we hope to provide policymakers, journalists, scholars and activists with a road map for understanding the political economy of forced labour in today’s “global value chain world”.

Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Political Economy Research Institute, 2018. 100p.

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By L.M. Wako.

Human trafficking is a persistent global social and economic problem, and part of international organized crime, involving local regional, national, and global agents and networks, and victims whose social characteristics traverse age (as they can be children, youths, or adults) and gender (women and men). Ethiopia is not an exception in this regard, and many disadvantaged Ethiopians have fallen victim to human trafficking. This study focuses on the trafficking of Ethiopian women to the Middle East to work as domestic workers. It documents how some of these trafficked women are recruited and transported, and often subjected to severe abuse, including denial of salary, sleep deprivation, passport confiscation, confinement, and physical and sexual assault. It is recognized that some women actively aim for irregular migration and try their luck, i.e., not all are by definition trafficked. They thereby aim to stay clear of trafficking agents and dependency but most become entangled…

Leiden: Leiden University, 2020. 205p.

By M.R.J. Soudijn.

Introduction. Although human smuggling is not exclusive to one particular ethnic group, a few notorious incidents have focused much attention on the smuggling of Chinese nationals for years. In June 1993, for example, the cargo ship “Golden Venture” ran aground off the US coast near New York. It carried 286 Chinese illegal immigrants on board. Several drowned when they tried to swim ashore but were overcome by the cold water. The ensuing investigation revealed that conditions on board were abominable and accounts of the horrors the passengers suffered during the journey found their way to the media. In later years similar transports were discovered (Wang, 1996). This drew attention to the smuggling of Chinese people in particular in the United States. The so-called Dover tragedy caused a similar uproar in Europe. On 19 June 2000 a cargo truck was found in Dover containing the bodies of 58 Chinese nationals who had died of suffocation. Only two survived the journey. The investigations and prosecutions that followed exposed a large group of human smugglers in the Netherlands.

Leiden: Leiden University, 2006. 179p.

By A. Kharel, S. Bhattarai, P. Aryal, S. Shrestha, P. Oosterhoff, P. and K. Snyder.

This study examined the media portrayal of different actors involved in human trafficking from Nepal to understand the reported changes in international routes of human trafficking from Nepal after 2015. The findings of the study are based on content analysis of 480 news articles published in six national newspapers in Nepal in a five-year period from 2016 to 2020, along with existing literature and interviews with newspaper reporters and editors.

Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, 2022. 96p.

By Clifford Griffith Roe.

There is not a life that this social evil does not menace. There is not a daughter, or a sister, who may not be in danger. The startling details with which this book must deal and tell the truth may seem revolting, and yet our unwillingness in the past to discuss these very things and our attempt at concealment has unwittingly allowed this horrible business to grow to monstrous proportions. In mentioning specific immoral places we have advisedly omitted their names and locations that such places may not be advertised through us. Likewise the surnames of girls who have been victims of the slave traders are omitted and fictitious given-names substituted for very obvious reasons. Therefore, earnestly believing that only through education can the procurers of girls be finally exterminated and the foulest slavery the world has ever known be blotted out, we have in the following pages written fearlessly and honestly the truth concerning the white slave traffic, and have brought out clearly and thoroughly the schemes and artifices of the panders.

Chicago: L.W. Walter, Co., 1911. 448p.

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By Samuel Hopkins Adams.

Articles on the nostrum evil and quacks, in two series, reprinted from Collier's weekly. This is the introductory article to a series which will contain a full explanation and exposure of patent-medicine methods, and the harm done to the public by this industry, founded mainly on fraud and poison. Results of the publicity given to these methods can already be seen in the steps recently taken by the National Government, some State Govermnents and a few of the more reputable newspapers. The object of the series is to make the situation so familiar- and thoroughly understood that there will be a speedy end to the worst aspects of the evil.

New York: P. F. Collier & Son 1906. 146p.

By Samuel Paynter Wilson.

The volume now offered to the reader aims to be a faithful and graphic pen picture of Chicago and its countless sights, its romance, its mysteries, its nobler and better efforts in the cause of humanity, its dark crimes, and terrible tragedies. In short, the work endeavors to hold up to the reader a faithful mirror in which shall pass all the varied scenes that transpire in Chicago by sunlight and by gaslight. To those who have seen the great city, the work is offered as a means of recalling some of the pleasantest experiences of their lives; while to the still larger class who have never enjoyed this pleasure, it is hoped that it will be the medium of acquiring an intimate acquaintance with Chicago in the quiet of their homes. This volume is not a work of fiction, but a narrative of well authenticated, though often startling facts. The darker sides of Chicago life are shown in their true colors, and without any effort to tone them down. Foul blots are to be found upon the life of the great city. Sin, vice, crime and shame are terrible realities there, and they have been presented here as they actually exist.

Chicago: s.n., 1910. 148p.

By Samuel Paynter Wilson.

I stood on the corner of a down-town street one night in December, and as I watched the seething sea of humanity passing by, and as I looked into their weary, anxious faces, I never felt more strongly in my life the necessity for the work on the part of the forces that are making for the moral and social uplift of the city. There, in great masses before my eyes was the good and the bad, and it was easy to make the distinction. The whole maddening throng seemed bent on unrighteous and riotous pleasure. The whole tendency was downward, and nothing of elevating or enobling influence was before me there. To me it appeared the death of youth, and the grave of manhood and womanhood. All that was base and ignoble in a great city was portrayed in the vivid picture before me, and as I gazed on the throng I could see the breaking down of virtue, which ought to be strong in every woman. In presenting to the public the experiences I have had, and of the results attained as an investigator in an Association, which has gained a world wide reputation for " doing things" in the sociological world, it is with a hope that I may find a genial public, and create a more forceful and lasting impression with my friends. This little work is the result of my own personal investigation among a class of men and women, who belong to the underworld, and the work has been accompanied with much personal danger and often required the courage and ex perience of one versed in the ways of the criminal one who has the ability to be a judge of human nature and a good " mixer." The men and women with whom we come in contact are scoundrels by nature and cowards at heart; they stab you in the back and shoot you from dark alleys; they are continually on the lookout for victims and usually find the harvest bountiful, and the matter contained in this book is merely to give expression in language so simple that all may understand its meaning. There are plague spots in almost every part of the great city and vultures prey upon the innocent and descend upon the city by daylight and by gaslight without warning of their coming. The white slave dealers flaunt their dastardly vice in the face of the public, and houses of ill- fame are conducted with a boldness unequalled anywhere in the world. The evil is very great and assuming larger proportions every year. In procuring evidence, and in bringing many of these unfortunates before the courts, and after listening to the defendants in giving testimony, I have come to the conclusion that virtue in Chicago is at a very low ebb, and that the home loving virtuous wife or mother is a jewel that the gods should crave and that decent manhood should love, honor and worship.

Chicago: Author, 1910. 148p.

By Samuel Paynter Wilson.

Prevalence of prostitution in Chicago : startling revelations. Madame Leroque is a familiar figure in the alsatia of more than one city. She is famous in the Chicago courts as having been defendant in many cases of wrongdoing. Her career is known by the police from coast to coast, and she has plied her calling in many of the large cities of the country. It was after a "raid" that I made Lena Mur phy's acquaintance. I was making my rounds, and slung by the cold winds that swept the streets bare of dust and refuse, I entered a neighboring saloon. Seating myself at a nearby table I was soon approached by the person whom I call Lena IMurphy. Lena was flushed, and somewhat forward ; both her eyes were discolored, the result of a fight with a French inmate of the "house'' adjoining the saloon.

Chicago. Author, 1910. 48p.

By W.N. Willis.

Crime, as we know it, is of three kinds : As a wrong against authority, we call it rebellion : as a wrong against property, we call it robbery ; and as a wrong against the person, in its worst form, whether slow or sudden, we call it murder. This crime is most certainly robbery that requires no argument ; it is worse than murder ; and as to rebellion, I can only say that if our legislators, having these facts before them, fail to safeguard the innocent, to exalt the law and make our citizens fearthat law more than the subjects of a tyrant ever feared his power, then I say deliberately that they make themselves accessories and partners in this iniquity, which God forbid!

Boston: R.G. Badger, 1913. 176p.

By Clifford Griffith Roe.

In the past those engaged in the girl slave traffic have managed to cast a veil of mystery about that business by keeping their operations secret. In their attempt at concealment they have been unconsciously aided by the public at large, by ministers, reformers and' social workers, since the latter too often have been unwilling to talk about the details of a subject so revolting. Yet, this very secrecy has been the chief cause of the success of the nefarious system, for it has hidden from the young girls, who are in the greatest danger, all the methods and devices by which they may be entrapped. Since this, the aiding of the evil elements in their worst phases, has been the effect of our scrupulous nicety and dislike for discussing ugly things, it is evident that we must pursue a different course. In order to save hundreds from a life, horrible be- yond words, we must cast aside all false notions of modesty. We must bring to light the methods of those engaged in the business, for we can eliminate it only by education, publicity, legislation and law enforcement. With the earnest belief that this is the only means of exterminating the panders who procure girls and sell them into slavery, I have tried in the following pages to set forth thoroughly and honestly the details of the white slave traffic and to explain the artifices and methods of the panders. The facts which appear in these pages were thrust upon me in the court room. There I heard the terrible stories of the victims, and when I learned of the vast proportions of this atrocious business, I felt I would indeed be unmindful of my duty if I did not use every effort within my power to eradi- cate this evil. In mentioning specific immoral houses in the following pages, I have purposely omitted their names and locations in order to pre-vent advertising these places. The surnames of girls who were procured have likewise been omitted for obvious reasons.

New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1910. 224p.

By Walter Elmore Fernald.

The first duty placed upon the commission was to investi- gate the "white slave traffic, so called/' and to determine, so far as possible, by what means and to what extent women and girls are induced or compelled by others to lead immoral lives. Such an investigation would necessarily lead to a study of all forms of commercialized prostitution, for any man or woman who traffics in the sexual life of any woman or girl for financial reward or gain is a trafficker in women, and therefore is a " white slaver." In the more restricted meaning the " white slaver " is a man who by means of coercion or bodily punishment com- pels a woman or girl against her will to sell herself to some other man for money which he, the "white slaver," takes- from her for his own benefit. The commission has used the broader as being the more correct interpretation, — the interpretation embodied in the federal law in the so-called Mann White Slave Act, and in our State law in chapter 424 of the Acts of 1910, the so- called Massachusetts White Slave Act. The commission has endeavored to obtain the fullest in- formation possible upon the subject outlined in the resolve creating it. Many meetings have been held. Conferences in various cities and towns have been held with police officials, judges, probation officers, district attorneys, physicians, charity workers and other citizens. Stories and rumors that have excited the public mind have been investigated. The members of the commission have personally investigated street conditions, cafes, hotels, etc., in different communities.

Boston: Wright & Potter Printing Co., 1914. 100p.

By Clifford Griffith Roe and B. S. Steadwell.

The mighty crusade to protect the purity of our homes. "And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.” ' That the truth may be known throughout the world con- cerning the traffic in girls and women, and that these poor fel- low beings may, through the knowledge of truth, be set free from bondage is the hope of the writers of this book. To protect the purity and sanctity of the home, to open the door of forgiveness to the prodigal daughter, as well as the prodigal son, to warn young womanhood against the snares of girl slave traders and to raise clean, honest manhood to the golden pinnacle of youth's ambition is the reason facts are here set forth often times unvarnished, ungilded and unpainted. Because in the past truth has been clothed in a mantle of mystery and facts have only been whispered in secret, traders in human souls have thrived and grown rich. These arch-enemies to society, the lowest of the lowly creatures on this earth, dwell in darkness; they welcome secrecy, ignorance and false modesty; they abhor light; they stifle truth and trample upon innocence. There is just one way to solve the social evil problem, and that is the way of education. A great campaign of education against the girl traffic, the blackest cloud overhanging civilization today, is under way in many countries. Education in the home, the school, the municipality, the state and the government.

London: Roe,1911. 490p.

By Michael Stern.

Commercialized vice in the machine age, from the official records at the New York District attorney's office. Working part time for the Brooklyn district attorney’s office in the 1930s, Mr. Stern gathered evidence that was used to convict the organizers of a prostitution ring. This experience provided the material for his first book, “The White Ticket: Commercialized Vice in the Machine Age,” published in 1936.

New York: National Library Press, 1936. 255p.

by Clifford Griffith Roe and B. S. Steadwell.

Or Fighting for the Protection of Our Girls. Truthful and chaste account op the hideous trade op buying and selling young girls for immoral purposes. startling disclosures made by white slaves during the trials of many pro- curers and traders. the cruel and inhuman treatment of white slaves. the astounding confession of a pander. graphic accounts of how white slaves are ensnared and a full exposi- tion of the methods and schemes used to lure and trap the girls. —also—Containing a Full Account of the Great Fight for the Suppression of White Slavery and the Great Movement for Purity in Our Homes.

London: Roe, 1911. 494p.

By George Jackson Kneeland.

In presenting to the public this volume, the first of four studies dealing with various aspects of the problem of prostitution, it seems fitting to make a statement with reference to the origin, work and plans of the Bureau of Social Hygiene. The Bureau came into existence about two years ago, as a result of the work of the Special Grand Jury which investigated the white slave traffic in New York City during the first half of the year 1910. One of the recommendations made by the jury in the presentment handed up at the termination of its labors was that a public commission be appointed to study the social evil. The foreman of the jury subsequently gave careful con-, sideration to the character of the work which might properly be done by such a commission and the limitations under which it would operate. In this connection, sep- arate personal conferences were held with over a hundred leading men and women in the city, among whom were lawyers, physicians, business men, bank presidents, presidents of commercial organizations, clergymen, settlement workers, social workers, labor leaders and reformers. These conferences led to the conclusion that a public commission would labor under a number of disadvantages, such as the fact that it would be short-lived ; that its work would be done publicly; that at best it could hardly do...

The purpose of this volume is to set forth as accurately and fully as possible the conditions of vice as they existed in New York City during the year 19 12. It should be clearly understood that the data upon which it is based are not presented as legal evidence, but as reliable information secured by careful and experienced investi-gators, whose work was systematically corroborated. In presenting the facts contained in this report, the Bureau has no thought of criticizing any department or official of the city administration. The task which the Bureau set itself was that of preparing a dispassionate, objective account of things as they were during the period above mentioned, the forms which commercialized vice had assumed, the methods by which it was carried on, the whole network of relations which had been elaborated below the surface of society. The studies involved were made in a spirit of scientific inquiry, and it is the hope of the Bureau that all departments or officials whose work this book in any way touches may find the information therein contained helpful to them in the further direction and organization of their work.

New York: Century, 1913. 344p.

By Mrs. Archibald MacKirdy and W. N. Willis.

No one to whom Eate or Providence has been kind cares to step from pleasant everyday ways of life into treacherous and dangerous paths which lead to suffering and unpopularity. No man or woman who has within grasp means of following a pleasant way in life would accept a grievous charge and painful labour, save for conscience' sake, and with the hope of waking public opinion to its duty in a matter of national importance.written about, but the part of it relating to the East has not been previously dealt within a volume of this kind. Even in this country the fearful trade has not much diminished. It is quite true that some very notorious houses or rendezvous have beenclosed, and that one restaurant which washaunted by the unhappy women who have nomeans of getting a living but by selling themselves to men, has been raided and shut up.But this was chiefly done by the work of theSalvation Army, as I know, for I went outwith the midnight workers and saw what washappening.

London: Stanley Paul and Co., 1912. 346p.

By O. EdwardJanney.

There seems to be need for a description of the white slave traffic in this country, and for some account of the movement that has arisen for its suppression, together with a discussion of the methods that may be employed to accomplish that end. There are multitudes of parents, teachers and other persons having charge of young people, who are unaware of the dangers that threaten young women through the adroit agents of this traffic. These need to be informed.

New York: National Vigilance Committee, 1911. 203p.

By E. Norine Law.

Immorality not only clouds and destroys the intellect, It brings physical disease and decay, as well as spiritual death. The conditions of social vice and sexual impurity in exist- ence to-day in the United States are horrible, pitiable andalarming. We must try to cause an arrest of thought and teach a higher grade of ideals or no one can foresee what the awful results will be. Indeed, the sickening tales of impurity and sexual vice that can be told are enough to frighten every person really interested in saving the people from destruction. Not only the present but the future welfare of our people are at stake.

Harrisburg, PA: United Evangelical Publishing House, 1909. 199p.

By the National Vigilance Association.

Transactions of the International Congress on the White Slave Trade....held in London, 1899. The White Slave Trade is the traffic in girls for immoral purposes, which is unhappily carried on not only in the East, where slavery is avowed, but more or less throughout Europe, For such girls there is a constant demand in the markets of vice, on the part of the infamous persons who keep houses of ill-fame with resident inmates. In all such houses the position of the miserable women is one of servitude. Their isolation, their friendlessness, the contempt with which they are usually regarded by respectable society, keep them under the control of the keepers of the houses ; who by charging them extortionate prices for everything supplied, and retaining the ownership of even the clothes they wear, keep them always nominally in their debt, a debt which is recovered when they sell the girl to another house. For the girl is often procured and bought at great expense, and as she becomes less and less valuable for the corrupt purpose, she is sold to lower and lower houses. This trade is of course comparatively little known in England, owing to the publicity of proceedings, and the high rate of wages, though the societies which concern themselves with such matters are continually coming across cases of young girls decoyed, or persuaded away to foreign parts; and even in England it is not always easy, in practice, to get a girl out of a brothel. But the poorer parts of Europe are visited by travelling agents, who have their local purveyors, and conduct their victims to the East and West, where they are lost in the bad houses. One large branch of the trade goes through Constantinople, another has its destination in the South American ports, chiefly Buenos Ayrea.

London : Printed by Wertheimer, Lea and Co., 1899. 174p.