By Anna Sergi

  Despite the challenges in defining mafia-style crime (MSC) as a standalone concept and differentiating such crimes from the acts perpetrated by mafia-style groups, its definition can be confined to private protection and systemic extortion linked to the ability of a group to exert control over a given territory or market. Notwithstanding, further challenges arise in trying to assess this criminal market. For example, creating a global assessment of the MSC market can be adversely impacted by: differing understandings of the ‘mafia’ concept in various jurisdictions; the lack of understanding of situational intimidation, which could lead to silent extortion; and overlapping criminal fields, such as forms of extortion perpetrated by non-organized criminal groups or abuse of power by public officials. Such limitations and inconsistencies should be considered during the assessment of MSCs, both globally and at a country level. Furthermore, the use of cyberspace in MSCs should also be monitored in order to achieve a more comprehensive assessment of future trends in the criminal market.  

Geneva, SWIT: The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2023. 22p.

By Maria Jose Talayero , C Rebecca Robbins , Emily R Smith , Carlos Santos-Burgoa 

  Prior research has demonstrated an association between lead exposure and criminal behavior at the population-level, however studies exploring the effect of lead exposure on criminal behavior at the individual-level have not been reviewed systematically. The intent of this study is to complete a systematic review of all studies assessing individual-level exposures to lead and the outcomes of crime and antisocial behavior traits. We included peer reviewed studies that were published prior to August 2022 and were classified as cohort, cross-sectional, or case-control. Studies measuring the outcomes of crime, delinquency, violence, or aggression were included. The following databases were searched using a standardized search strategy: ProQuest Environmental Science Database, PubMed, ToxNet and the Public Affairs Information Service (PAIS). Seventeen manuscripts met our inclusion criteria. Blood lead was measured in 12 studies, bone lead in 3 studies, and dentine lead levels in 2 studies. This systematic review identified a wide range of diverse outcomes between exposure to lead at multiple windows of development and later delinquent, criminal and antisocial behavior. A review of all potential confounding variables included within each study was made, with inclusion of relevant confounders into the risk of bias tool. There is limited data at the individual level on the effects of prenatal, childhood, and adolescent lead exposure and later criminal behavior and more evidence is necessary to evaluate the magnitude of the associations seen in this review. Our review, in conjunction with the available biological evidence, suggests that an excess risk for criminal behavior in adulthood exists when an individual is exposed to lead in utero or in the early years of childhood. 

 PLOS Glob Public Health 3(8): e0002177.

By Francisca M. Antman and Brian Duncan

We merge the longitudinally linked historical US Census records with data on lynchings of Hispanics in Texas to investigate the impacts of historical lynchings of ethnic Mexicans in Texas on US-born Mexican Americans. Using variation in lynching incidents across counties over time, we explore the impacts of local exposure to lynchings during childhood on long-run outcomes such as earnings, education, and home ownership of adults in 1940. Our findings are suggestive of small, negative impacts, but we caution that more research in this area is needed for a more robust interpretation of the results.

IZA Discussion Paper No. 16974

Antman, Francisca and Duncan, Brian, Examining the Long-Run Impacts of Racial Terror with Data on Historical Lynchings of Mexicans in Texas. IZA Discussion Paper No. 16974,

By Daniel Muir, Cristiana Orlando, Becci Newton

Review Rationale and Context: Many intervention studies of summer programmes examine their impact on employment and education outcomes, however there is growing interest in their effect on young people's offending outcomes. Evidence on summer employment programmes shows promise on this but has not yet been synthesised. This report fills this evidence gap through a systematic review andmeta‐analysis, covering summer education and summer employment programmes as their contexts and mechanisms are often similar.Research Objective: The objective is to provide evidence on the extent to which summer programmes impact the outcomes of disadvantaged or ‘at risk’ young people. Methods: The review employs mixed methods: we synthesise quantitative information estimating the impact of summer programme allocation/participation across the outcome domains through meta‐analysis using the random‐effects model;and we synthesise qualitative information relating to contexts, features, mechanisms and implementation issues through thematic synthesis. Literature searches were largely conducted in January 2023. Databases searched include: Scopus; PsychInfo;ERIC; the YFF‐EGM; EEF's and TASO's toolkits; RAND's summer programme evidence review; key academic journals; and Google Scholar. The review employedPICOSS eligibility criteria: the population was disadvantaged or ‘at risk’ young people aged 10–25; interventions were either summer education or employment programmes; a valid comparison group that did not experience a summer programme was required; studies had to estimate the summer programme's impact on violence and offending, education, employment, socio‐emotional and/or health outcomes;eligible study designs were experimental and quasi‐experimental; eligible settings were high‐income countries. Other eligibility criteria included publication in English,between 2012 and 2022. Process/qualitative evaluations associated with eligible impact studies or of UK‐based interventions were also included; the latter given the interests of the sponsors. We used standard methodological procedures expected byThe Campbell Collaboration. The search identified 68 eligible studies; with 41eligible for meta‐analysis. Forty‐nine studies evaluated 36 summer .continued......

Campbell Systematic Reviews
Volume 20, Issue 2

June 2024

By Cynthia Lum, Charles Wellford, Thomas Scott, Heather Vovak, Jacqueline A. Scherer and Michael Goodier

This eight-agency case study analyzes the characteristics of four high-and four low-performing police agencies, as measured by their long-term crime clearance rates. High and low performers were identified through a systematic assessment of 30 years of clearance rates of robberies, aggravated assaults, burglaries, and homicides for the largest 100 police departments in the United States. Researchers then conducted in-depth case studies of eight of these agencies—four of the highest and four of the lowest ranking in terms of their investigative practices. Comparisons of high-and low-performing agencies reveal differences in organizational structure; leadership and resources; selection, training, and performance review for investigators; case assignment and investigative processes; and community interactions. These findings provide direct guidance to agencies seeking to strengthen their investigative organization and practices.

Police QuarterlyVolume 27, Issue 2, June 2024, Pages 135-157

By Sally M. Evans, Bethany A. Jones, Daragh T. McDermott

Literature regarding trans and gender diverse (TGD) prisoners’ experiences of prison custody is limited. Reviewing international literature enables a better understanding of these experiences and how effectively TGD policies are implemented. This systematic review employed PRISMA and ENTREQ guidelines to enhance transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative and mixed-methods research. Seventeen papers were included and through meta-ethnographic synthesis three overarching themes emerged: structural, interpersonal and intrapersonal. Recommendations include reducing reliance on survival strategies by TGD prisoners through implementation of policies which meet TGD prisoners’ needs and to enabling better informed decision making regarding housing. Further research into lived experiences would allow for a better understanding of what currently works, how services could be improved, and identify potential training needs.

The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice

Early View, June 2024. 

By Moutasem A. Zakkar,Se Lim Jang,Fariba Kolahdooz,Sarah Deck,Christina Gillies,Adrian Wagg,Sangita Sharma

Interactions with the police can impact an individual’s short and long-term physical, mental, and social wellbeing, as well as levels of violence and unrest within a community. As such, this study aimed to explore experiences with the police among individuals experiencing socioeconomic disadvantages in Edmonton, Canada. For this qualitative study, participants (n = 39) were recruited from an emergency shelter for women, a drop-in community organization supporting individuals experiencing socioeconomic disadvantages, and a centre providing settlement support for newcomers to Canada. During the recruitment process, the research information sheet, including the scope and goals of the study, was presented, and participants who had any experience with the police were recruited. Each participant joined one of seven focus groups, during which experiences with the police were discussed; data from the focus groups were analyzed utilizing thematic analysis. Factors that contributed to satisfactory experiences with the police included the police demonstrating responsiveness and compassion, as well as an individual’s understanding of police work. Factors that contributed to unsatisfactory experiences included the experiences of discrimination, stigmatization, and disrespect during interactions with the police. Participants suggested that community-police relationships could be improved by police being less judgemental and suspicious in their approach, undergoing regular training in sociocultural sensitivity, and being more open in their communication and community outreach. Overall, adopting a less discriminatory and more empathetic approach within a police force is essential for creating and maintaining a positive community-police relationship. By considering the socioeconomic context of people’s behaviours and actions, police can better support the health and wellbeing of individuals and communities.

PLOS Global Public Health, June 2024.

By Adam Rowh; Marissa Zwald; Katherine Fowler,  Shane Jack,  Carlos Siordia, Josh Walters

Firearm-related deaths and injuries have increased in recent years. Comprehensive and timely information on firearm injuries and the communities and geographic locations most affected by firearm violence is crucial for guiding prevention activities. However, traditional surveillance systems for firearm injury, which are mostly based on hospital encounters and mortality-related data, often lack information on the location where the shooting occurred. This study examined annual and monthly rates of emergency medical services (EMS) encounters for firearm injury per 100,000 total EMS encounters during January 2019–September 2023 in 858 counties in 27 states, by patient characteristics and characteristics of the counties where the injuries occurred. Overall, annual rates of firearm injury EMS encounters per 100,000 total EMS encounters ranged from 222.7 in 2019 to 294.9 in 2020; rates remained above prepandemic levels through 2023. Rates were consistently higher among males than females. Rates stratified by race and ethnicity were highest among non-Hispanic Black or African American persons; rates stratified by age group were highest among persons aged 15–24 years. The greatest percentage increases in annual rates occurred in urban counties and in counties with higher prevalence of severe housing problems, higher income inequality ratios, and higher rates of unemployment. States and communities can use the timely and location-specific data in EMS records to develop and implement comprehensive firearm injury prevention strategies to address the economic, social, and physical conditions that contribute to the risk for violence, including improvements to physical environments, secure firearm storage, and strengthened social and economic supports.

  Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, June 20, 2024 / 73(24);551–557

By MEGAN T. STEVENSON

This Article is built around a central empirical claim: most reforms and interventions in the criminal legal space are shown to have little lasting effect when evaluated with gold standard methods. While this might be disappointing from the perspective of someone hoping to learn what levers to pull to achieve change, I argue that this teaches us something valuable about the structure of the social world. When it comes to the type of limited-scope interventions that lend themselves to high-quality evaluation, social change is hard to engineer. Stabilizing forces push people back toward the path they would have been on absent the intervention. Cascades—small interventions that lead to large and lasting changes—are rare. And causal processes are complex and context dependent, meaning that a success achieved in one setting may not port well to another. This has a variety of implications. It suggests that a dominant perspective on social change—one that forms a pervasive background for academic research and policymaking—is at least partially a myth. Understanding this shifts how we should think about social change and raises important questions about the process of knowledge generation. 

Boston University Law Review,  [Vol. 103:2001) 2023.

By Susanne Dell and Graham Robertson

Summary of main points

•The Maudsley Monographs are a series of publications that report on work carriedout in the Institute of Psychiatry and the associated Hospital.

•The monographs cover both clinical problems and scientific fields relevant topsychiatry.

•This particular monograph focuses on offenders in Broadmoor Hospital.

•The authors of the monograph are Susanne Dell and Graham Robertson.

•The monograph includes references to various studies and publications related toforensic psychiatryand the treatment of offenders.

•The authors express gratitude to Dr. Paul Bowden, Dr. Adrian Grounds, and othersfor their input and assistance in the preparation of the monograph.

Oxford University Press, 1988, 170 pages

By Amnesty International

This document is a report published by Amnesty International in 1983. It discusses political killings by governments and provides information on responsibility, official cover-up, disappearances, and mass liquidation. It also includes case studies on political killings in Guatemala, Indonesia, Kampuchea, Uganda, Argentina, India, and Libya. There port examines international legal standards and remedies for extrajudicial executions and highlights the work of the International Conference on ExtrajudicialExecutions. It concludes with a list of participants and appendices containing resolutions and statements related to the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders.

Amnesty International Publications, 1983 - 131 pagine

By Jody Armour

"Ngga Theory: Language, Unequal Justice, and the Law" by Jody Armour is a thought-provoking exploration of how language shapes perceptions within the criminal justice system. Armour delves into the complexities surrounding the use of the word "ngga" and its implications on issues of race, equality, and justice. This book challenges readers to confront uncomfortable truths about the ways in which language can perpetuate systemic inequalities in our society. With sharp analysis and compelling arguments, Armour prompts readers to reconsider the power dynamics at play in our legal system and broader social discourse. "N*gga Theory" is a timely and essential read for anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the intersection of language, race, and justice in America.

Los Angeles Review of Books, 2020, 224 pages

By Pamela Scully

The document provides a comprehensive examination of the social history ofAfrica, focusing on the impact of British slave emancipation in the ruralWestern Cape, South Africa, between 1823-1853. Here are the key insights:

Family and Slavery: It explores how familial relationships andboundaries were shaped and constrained under Cape slavery.

Apprenticeship Struggles: The document discusses the apprenticeshipperiod post-slavery, highlighting the conflicts over child labor and familyautonomy.

Post-Emancipation Dynamics: It analyzes the changes in family, labor,and gender relations following emancipation.

Racial and Gender Identities: The text delves into the complexities ofrace, gender, and sexual politics in colonial identities during thepost-emancipation era.These insights reflect the intricate interplay between social structures andindividual experiences during a transformative period in South African history.

Boydell & Brewer, Limited, 1997, 210 pages

By Melissa Serafin and Anne Li

Key findings and recommendations:  Firearm owners and national experts emphasized that firearm owners themselves are the most trusted messengers, including firearm-related groups and organizations (e.g., gun shops, hunting groups, firearm safety instructors). These messengers are best suited to provide legitimacy and ensure saliency of messaging efforts. ü National experts also described the importance of actively and authentically seeking partners within the firearm-owning community to collaborate on suicide prevention efforts Frame firearm suicide prevention messaging in a way that underscores gun rights. ü Firearm owners and national experts agreed that messaging should immediately convey the legitimacy of owning firearms. ü Additionally, messaging should avoid conveying the perception of anti-gun bias, including the idea that firearm access or ownership should be restricted. ü Firearm owners and experts also emphasized the importance of considering the heterogeneity of the firearm-owning community when crafting messaging and tailoring messages accordingly. Focus on raising mental health awareness, debunking myths, and addressing stigma. ü Firearm owners and national experts identified a need to improve understanding of mental health concerns; debunk myths about suicide, mental health, and mental health services; and address stigma. Additionally, they identified a need to help people have conversations about mental health and express concerns people may have about a loved one. ü They suggested incorporating content that could improve understanding of these topics within messaging efforts. ü However, some findings indicate that this type of information needs to be carefully crafted to ensure salience, as firearm owners may not view mental health and suicide as relevant to their personal lives. Share stories of lived experience. ü Firearm owners suggested incorporating real stories related to firearm suicide, seeking mental health support, and the potential consequences of unsafe storage. Additionally, they suggested that these stories should involve people with identities that firearm owners could identify with. ü They described how storytelling may be particularly effective in ensuring messaging resonates with firearm owners and dispelling myths about mental health, suicide, and safe storage.  

St. Paul: Wilder Foundation, 2022. 41p.

By  David Wells 

  • Over the past year and a half, the rapid expansion in the availability and accessibility of generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools has prompted a range of potential national and international security concerns, including the possible abuse of generative AI by terrorists and violent extremists. Terrorists and violent extremists have already started experimenting with generative AI, including by using a variety of tools to generate propaganda material. This experiment has been relatively limited so far. • An analysis of current or imminent iterations of generative AI tools suggests that they offer terrorists and violent extremists the potential to optimize some of their existing capabilities. Most obviously, generative AI can improve a range of propaganda-related tasks, including generating or modifying images, videos, audio, and text, as well as the use of translation and transcription tools. More worryingly, it may also allow terrorists and violent extremists to evade a key counter-measure used by major online platforms — the timely removal of terrorist content using its “digital fingerprint” (hash). • In other areas of terrorist methodology, the potential benefits of generative AI appear overstated, or dependent on either a significant advancement in the technology itself or the technological skills available to terrorist actors. For example, while generative AI can theoretically speed up and enhance research into terrorist targets or methodology, the frequency with which many generative AI programs provide inaccurate or made-up information presents potential risks for terrorist users. Although early indications of violent extremists customizing basic chatbots is concerning, creating a comprehensive, fully-functioning “terrorist GPT” to radicalize and recruit would currently require processing power and technical skills beyond those of most terrorist actors. Broader factors impacting how and when terrorists adopt new technologies must also be taken into account when considering the risks of generative AI being exploited. • Although understanding (and ultimately responding to) these use cases will be important, any analysis of the potential impact of generative AI on terrorism and violent extremism must include the broader societal impacts of the technology. Many of these potential impacts — which range from significant job losses and a severely degraded information environment to a bolstering of authoritarian regimes and a large-scale perpetuation of discrimination and biases — are extremely worrying in and of themselves. But they are also likely to contribute to conditions that are conducive to radicalization, and in which terrorist and violent extremist narratives can thrive. • The breadth of these direct and indirect challenges presents a compelling argument for the urgent development of a coordinated approach. A range of responses to the broader risks posed by AI are underway at national, regional, and international levels, including draft regulation, consultations, and nascent bi- and multilateral agreements. But few have focused to any great extent on the risks associated with terrorist use of generative AI. Stakeholders must remind themselves that while generative AI technology is new, many of the challenges it poses are not; moreover, many of the lessons learned over the past two decades of counter-terrorism and preventing and countering violent extremism (P/CVE) remain extremely relevant. These include the importance of multilateral cooperation, the centrality of both public-private partnerships and engagement with civil society organizations, and the need to respect human rights  

Washington, DC: Middle East Institute, 2024. 18p.  

By Stephane J. Baele and Lewys Brace

   Over the past decade, two major phenomena have developed in the digital realm. On the one hand, extremism has grown massively on the Internet, with sprawling online ecosystems hosting a wide range of radical subcultures and communities associated with both ‘stochastic terrorism’ and the ‘mainstreaming of extremism’. On the other hand, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has undergone exponential improvement: from ChatGPT to video deepfakes, from autonomous vehicles to face-recognition CCTV systems, an array of AI technologies has abruptly entered our everyday lives. This report examines ‘AI extremism’, the toxic encounter of these two evolutions – each worrying in its own right. Like past technological progress, AI will indeed be – in fact already is – used in various ways to bolster extremist agendas. Identifying the many opportunities for action that come with a range of AI models, and linking them with different types of extremist actors, we offer a clear overview of the numerous facets of AI extremism. Building on the nascent academic and government literature on the issue as well as on our own empirical and theoretical work, we provide new typologies and concepts to help us organize our understanding of AI extremism, systematically chart its instantiations, and highlight thinking points for stakeholders in countering violent extremism

Dublin:   

     VOX-Pol Network of Excellence, 2024. 82p.

By James Lewis, Sarah Marsden, Jmes Hewitt and Anne Peterscheck 

This report presents the findings of a systematic review of research on how, and under what circumstances, trauma might be implicated in individual journeys into, and out of, violent extremism. It builds on previous work carried out by the research team on these dynamics, including a scoping review of the literature (Lewis & Marsden, 2021), and a process of network development involving a series of workshops bringing together researchers, policymakers and practitioners to discuss the relevance of trauma and adversity to violent extremism. This process confirmed there was a nascent, but growing, body of research exploring this topic, and that there was significant practical and analytical utility in exploring these processes in greater depth. 
The analysis presented in this report develops this research programme in three ways:

1. Undertaking a systematic review of post-2000 empirical, academic research on trauma, adversity and violent extremism to better understand a) the prevalence of trauma in the life histories of violent extremists; and b) the relevance of trauma in interpreting pathways towards, and away from, violent extremism.

2. Examining the different ways in which trauma is implicated in radicalisation pathways by synthesising this research on trauma, adversity and violent extremism with radicalisation models identified in a separate systematic review. 

3. Exploring how applying a trauma-informed perspective to understanding journeys into and out of violent extremism might inform research and practice.

Overview of the Report

This report consists of eight sections. The next section provides an overview of the key concepts discussed in the report, before discussing the conceptual framework that underpins our analysis. This is followed by an overview of our methodology and by three analysis sections addressing the three objectives outlined above:

1. Section one sets out the evidence identified through the systematic review. Drawing on 159 studies, it discusses the different relationships that have been identified between trauma, adversity and violent extremism. 

2. The second section explores whether and how trauma is captured in existing radicalisation models. This draws on an analysis of 99 papers identified through a separate systematic review of radicalisation models (Corner & Taylor, 2023). 

3. The final section presents a more theoretical and conceptual analysis, reviewing the implications of these findings for research and practice. 

The report concludes by summarising the key conclusions, implications, and recommendations for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners.

Lancaster, UK:  Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats  - CREST, 2024. 

By Hanna Rigault Arkhis

This report sets out the findings of research into women’s online involvement in far-right extremism analysed through the lens of the Good Lives Model (GLM). It addresses the lack of research on the gendered nature of the needs that are being met when engaging in such spaces.

The findings are based on an analysis of a women only right-wing forum hosted by Stormfront, the oldest white nationalist online community. The results highlight which goods are pursued, what needs are met, and how norms around goods are constructed.

A range of goods were identified as important and were achieved in different ways.

• Healthy living is usually fulfilled through the creation of a white family and raising children according to white nationalist ideology.

• Community is found on Stormfront and sustained through a cluster of primary goods including play, pleasure, and relatedness.

• Ways of meeting the good of creativity include cultivating one’s appearance in a way that indicates support for their ideology.

• Agency is found through a variety of roles; usually that of the stay-at-home mother or as a promoter of white nationalist ideology, either online or offline.

• Stormfront women appear to seek knowledge and work due to a desire to serve the movement better. They also advocate for a 'softer' expression of their beliefs, that distances them from violence, principally to facilitate recruitment.

By testing the applicability of the GLM to an online platform, this research affords a better understanding of the opportunities provided by online extreme communities to fulfil women's needs. It demonstrates the utility of the GLM and its ability to help interpret the goods women attain through involvement in extremist spaces.

Understanding the goods and needs that online spaces fulfil has the potential to inform gender-responsive programmes to Prevent and Counter Violent Extremism (P/CVE). By highlighting the gendered nature of goods, the analysis illustrates that ‘gender blind’ programmes are unlikely to address the particular needs of women.

A GLM-informed analysis has the potential to inform P/CVE interventions by identifying the goods that might be relevant to certain communities, and the women who make them up, and using that understanding to identify interventions that make opportunities to achieve those goods in pro-social, positive ways more accessible.

Lancaster, UK:  Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats  - CREST, 2024.

By Claire Simonich, Will Tentindo, Vanessa Domenichelli, Ilan H. Meyer

  In this report, we describe findings of research conducted by scholars at the Williams Institute in collaboration with the Social Justice Legal Foundation (SJLF) that aimed to understand how transgender parole seekers fare in the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) parole hearings. As a result of a public records request by SJLF, we received transcripts of 42 parole hearings that took place between January 1, 2021 – February 28, 2022, in which persons seeking parole identified as transgender. Our analysis shows that • Transgender individuals, aged 30 – 76, for whom transcripts were provided, were granted parole at approximately the same rate as the general population of parole seekers during that period: 31% of the transgender individuals in our sample (13 of 42) were granted parole as compared with 34% of all parole seekers in 2021, as reported by the CDCR. • Approximately 43% (16 out of 37 with relevant data) of parole hearings for transgender individuals included misgendering and/or insensitive or biased comments. { { Examples of insensitive or biased statements included parole commissioners questioning whether the parole seeker would remain sober because the “LGBTQ community has big parties,” and one commissioner spending several minutes discussing whether a transgender woman is able to maintain an erection. Examples of misgendering include a parole seeker’s own attorney misgendering them, stating that he felt “weird” about using his client’s preferred pronouns. One nonbinary individual asked the commissioners to be addressed by name, but the commissioners pushed the individual to choose a pronoun. • Some commissioners appeared moved when parole seekers spoke about how challenges stemming from being closeted as a transgender person (prior to transition) contributed to criminal behavior or how a transition could facilitate rehabilitation. • Other commissioners had negative reactions to the transgender individuals before them. { { For example, one commissioner doubted that the incarcerated individual’s transgender status would make life easier on the outside, suggesting that because one parole seeker had never “lived in society as a transgender woman . . . surely it’s going to be difficult.” Another commissioner stated, without prompting, “I don’t want to offend anybody, but your whole . . . , how you identify, is going to be an issue in the community. Right? I mean, that’s going to cause stress.” • Having an explicit parole housing plan was an important factor in granting parole—10 of 18 (56%) people with a housing plan were granted parole as compared with 3 out of 24 (13%) individuals who did not have an explicit housing plan. • Although finding appropriate transitional housing is extraordinarily challenging for transgender individuals, parole commissioners heavily consider this factor in their parole determination.

Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, 2023. 11p.

By Ayako Miyashita Ochoa,  Bianca D.M. Wilson,  Kimberly Fuentes,  Rae Jones,  Katherine Lee,  Moriah Macklin

   People who engage in sex work (PESW) are particularly vulnerable to criminalization even when seeking to report experiencing victimization. The health and safety of those engaged in sex work is further jeopardized as condoms have been historically used as evidence of sex work. California Senate Bill (SB) 233, taking effect on January 1, 2020, was meant to ensure that condoms cannot be used as probable cause for arrest nor used as evidence to prosecute a person for sex work. Nearly two years after its passage, we conducted interviews with twenty-five diverse individuals with experience engaging in sex work in Los Angeles County, a known locus for enforcement of a prior HIV felony solicitation. We sought to explore respondents’ interactions with law enforcement, their knowledge, beliefs, and experiences with the use of condoms as evidence of sex work, and their beliefs about criminalization risk and how that might impact condom possession and condom use in the context of their work. Through a group thematic review and individual coding (or categorizing) process, we identified the below key findings: • Respondents shared their perceptions about the risks of criminalization related to condoms in several ways. Some had detailed knowledge about rules and policies related to condom carrying and others had a general awareness of the possible risk of carrying condoms. • Respondents discussed that the information they received about criminalization regarding condom possession came primarily from other PESW. • Respondents discussed approaches to mitigating risk of police surveillance by either not carrying condoms at all and/or managing condom carrying through concealing techniques. • Some respondents who carried condoms, whether they tried to conceal them or not, discussed reasons for doing so, including resisting police control and reducing risk to protect their health, the health of their clients, and/or the health of their community and colleagues in sex work. • Generally, most respondents (80%) had not heard of any new law that restricted the use of condoms as evidence (SB 233). Further, reflecting the lack of awareness of the new law, condom-carrying behaviors seemed relatively unchanged. • Notably, most respondents carried condoms regardless of the risk of criminalization

Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, 2023. 13p.