By Troy Allard, Molly McCarthy and Anna Stewart

  The lifetime costs of offenders to the criminal justice system provide useful information to support implementation of innovative frameworks such as justice reinvestment and payment by outcome, as well as helping to assess the effectiveness of targeted prevention programs. However, few Australian studies have explored the longitudinal costs of offenders and no research has explored whether criminal justice system costs differ based on Indigenous status. This study used linked administrative data (contacts individuals born in 1983 and 1984 had with police, courts and corrections in Queensland) to determine how offending develops over the life course and how Indigenous status influences offending trajectories. A narrow costing framework focused on direct criminal justice system costs used in service provision (police, courts, youth justice and corrections) was developed to establish unit cost estimates based on critical cost drivers (eg whether diverted, offence type, trials and sanction type). These cost estimates were modelled to assess the costs of individuals on different trajectories. Findings identified over half (53%) of the Indigenous population and 16 percent of the non-Indigenous population had moderate to chronic trajectories of offending. Because of the high levels of recontact, Indigenous offenders were on average more costly. These findings emphasise the need for innovative approaches such as justice reinvestment/payment-by outcome to reduce Indigenous over-representation.  

Report to the Criminology Research Advisory Council      

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2020. 65p.

By David Bartlett, Janet Ransley, Lucy Forrester and Kristine Middendorp

Government and public concern about corporate wrongdoing in Australia is arguably at an all-time high. However, the extent and nature of corporate crime is largely unknown; it is concealed by regulatory agency reporting practices and the absence of a single data source which combines data across all regulators. This study addresses the problem by examining corporate offending by 33 of the country’s top companies, and their wholly owned subsidiaries, over a five-year period. The results indicate that corporate offending is patterned and unevenly distributed across the business community. Drawing on the findings and on their experience of conducting the research, the authors make recommendations for improving policy and practice, including the establishment of a national database of corporate offending.

Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 613. 

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. 2020. 17p.

By David Bartlett,  Janet Ransley and Lucy Forrester

   Corporate crime is increasingly becoming a topic of importance for the Australian Government and public. Recent inquiries have highlighted the extent of wrongdoing by some corporations and within some industries. However, the overall extent of corporate offending in Australia is largely unknown and unable to be ascertained due to the absence of centralised reporting. This study examines 33 of Australia’s largest corporations and their subsidiaries over a five-year period. Drawing upon publicly available data, the findings highlight that offending is concentrated in particular industry sectors, with some specific corporations accounting for a substantial proportion of offences. The type and extent of enforcement action taken against those corporations is examined and reveals differences, in part based upon the different enforcement styles of regulators. The findings from this study have important implications for regulatory practice and emphasise the need for a centralised corporate crime data collection in Australia.  

Report to the Criminology Research Advisory Council

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2020. 56p.

By Paul Andon and Clinton Free 

  Although serious fraud is typically perpetrated over a prolonged time frame, fraud research has been heavily focused on the decision to commit fraud rather than the way it is sustained. Based on an analysis of 42 interviews with offenders who have committed serious fraud, we examine how fraud perpetrators continue to offend over extended periods. We find that fraudulent offending is frequently associated with strain for offenders including fear of detection, guilt and shame. We present a typology of strategies used by offenders to cope with this strain over the course of their offending comprising (1) problem-focused coping, (2) emotion-focused coping, (3) meaning-focused coping and (4) social-focused coping. While notions of rationalisation are germane for initial decisions to engage in fraud, we find limited recourse to rationalisation in the latter stages of offending. Offenders have often considerable scope for managing diverse, fragile, perhaps even contradictory, understandings of their selves. Control system implications for addressing organizational precipitators of fraud, including controlling situational prompts, pressures, work-based permissibility and provocations are discussed.  

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2020. 52p.

By Paul Andon and Clinton Free 

   Research across a range of disciplines has generally focused on the decision to commit fraud rather than how fraud is sustained over time. This study uses interviews with serious workplace fraudsters to examine enablers of sustained offending. We present coping strategies offenders use to manage strain and sustain offending. We highlight that while rationalisation is germane for first-time offending, coping may be a more useful construct for understanding how offending is sustained over time

Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 596. 

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2020. 14p.

By Tom Sullivan Emily Faulconbridge Samantha Bricknell Merran McAlister

The first data from the new Australian Sexual Offence Statistical (ASOS) collection shows:

• There were 8,326 unique alleged sexual offenders proceeded against by police in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory in 2021–22.

•  The male sexual offending rate in these six jurisdictions was 75.64 per 100,000 and the female sexual offending rate was 5.12 per 100,000.

• The largest proportion of offenders proceeded against for sexual offences in 2021–22 were alleged to have committed penetrative or non-penetrative sexual conduct offences (77%, n=6,450), followed by handling of unlawful sexual material offences (24%, n=2,024), enabling unlawful sexual conduct offences (8%, n=656) and persistent sexual abuse offences (1%, n=82).

• Around one-third of offenders in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory were a non-family member known to the victim (32%, n=1,891), 15 percent (n=886) were an intimate partner, 19 percent (n=1,124) were other family and 21 percent (n=1,267) were a stranger.

Statistical Report no. 47. 

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. 2024. 65p.

By Mieke Snijder

How, for whom, and under what conditions does Participatory Action Research (PAR) generate innovation to tackle the drivers of the worst forms of child labour (WFCL)?

This paper presents the findings of a realist evaluation that investigated how PAR groups facilitated children who work in exploitative and harmful labour and business owners in the leather industry in Bangladesh and the adult entertainment sector in Nepal to generate innovative actions. These PAR groups were facilitated over a period of 18 months to two years by non-governmental organisation professionals trained in PAR approaches.

PAR is defined as a knowledge-, action-, and innovation-generating intervention that enabled a group of children or business owners to meet over a period of time to build evidence, generate theories of change, develop and implement innovative solutions, and reflect on and evaluate how these solutions were working (or not). Our evidence showed that PAR generated innovative solutions to WFCL through raising group members’ critical consciousness of the underlying causal dynamics that drive WFCL. This critical consciousness-raising was done through gathering their own evidence and reflecting on their own experiences, as well as through developing their own theory of change through which they could identify on which part of the causal chain they could take action. Furthermore, PAR processes allowed groups of individuals, who because of their experience of marginalisation in urban settings did not have opportunities to come together, to build a collective identity that was grounded in their shared experiences and a common goal to take action to tackle these issues. This collective identity allowed them, as a new collective that was more than the sum of its parts, to develop innovative actions. Finally, by taking action and reflecting on these actions, PAR group members were able to harness their experiential knowledge on causal and power dynamics that underpinned and perpetuated their issues and use this new knowledge to develop further innovative actions.

CLARISSA Research and Evidence Paper 14

Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, 2024. 60p.

DOI: 10.19088/CLARISSA.2024.009

By Jason Eligh

  I n recent years, the global landscape of illicit synthetic drug markets has undergone profound transformations, driven by a complex interplay of factors ranging from decentralized production models and deepening geopolitical schisms to open source databases and other technological advancements. From the proliferation of dark web marketplaces to the emergence of new and novel psychoactive substances (NPS), these trends have generated significant and sometimes contradictory challenges to law enforcement agencies, public health systems and policymakers worldwide. Rapid, unregulated expansion of the global pharmaceutical and chemical sectors has been a fundamental driver behind what has become, over the last 10 years, but particularly in the last two years, a global explosion in illicit synthetic drug production, trafficking and use. A mass proliferation of chemists and firms producing and vending synthetic substances and their many precursors has helped propel an unprecedented propensity for licit industrial production channels and supply chains being diverted into illicit economic activity. One consequence of all this is the realization that synthetic drugs have become the future of drug trafficking. One of the most notable trends in illicit synthetic drug markets has been the rapid expansion of online platforms, particularly on the dark web. These anonymous marketplaces provide a convenient and relatively secure environment for the sale and distribution of illicit substances, allowing vendors and buyers to operate with a degree of anonymity. Cryptocurrencies, some boasting of their untraceable digital footprint, have facilitated transactions, enabling actors to evade basic anti-money laundering requirements and law enforcement efforts. Moreover, the globalization of supply chains has enabled the widespread dissemination of synthetic drugs across borders. Production hubs in countries with lax regulations and enforcement mechanisms serve as primary sources of supply for a diverse array of substances to markets around the world. The decentralization of production and distribution networks complicates efforts to disrupt these illicit activities. The proliferation of NPS is a major concern. These synthetic compounds are often chemically modified versions of existing drugs, developed to mimic their effects while evading legal restrictions because of their chemical composition. Through its Early Warning Advisory on NPS, and in partnership with voluntary reporting by member states, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has identified over 1 200 NPS from 141 different countries.2 The rapid pace of innovation in this domain  challenges regulatory frameworks, as authorities struggle to keep pace with the emergence of these new synthetic substances, their potential health risks and their potential contribution to wider illicit drug market dynamics. The escalation in the use of synthetic opioids, such as fentanyl and its analogues in North America, and tramadol in Africa, is a particularly alarming trend within illicit drug markets. These substances, vital to public health institutions for pain relief and palliative care purposes, but too often also produced clandestinely in makeshift laboratories, have been responsible for a significant increase in drug-related morbidity and mortality worldwide. Their potency and availability pose unprecedented challenges to public health systems and law enforcement agencies.  

Geneva:  Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime.

By Maria Khoruk

  More than two years after the Taliban’s return to power in Afghanistan on 15 August 2021, the country is once again high on the UN’s agenda. The levels of conflict-related violence may have significantly decreased compared to the Taliban’s time as an insurgent group, but extrajudicial killings, arbitrary arrests and detentions, and other gross human rights violations have continued, targeting in particular women, ethnic minorities, former state officials and people who use drugs (PWUD). The security situation has been further undermined by the alleged presence and escalating activities of non-state armed groups, such as the Islamic State in Iraq, the Levant-Khorasan (ISIL-K) and the Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) – although the Taliban has repeatedly denied the TTP’s presence in Afghanistan. In March 2024, the mandate of the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) will be reviewed. It follows the release (on 8 November 2023) of the independent assessment of the international response in Afghanistan, which the UN Security Council (UNSC) requested in Resolution 2679 (2023). The independent assessment’s recommendations for the international community’s activities in Afghanistan include a structured engagement strategy to address the basic needs of the Afghan people, cooperation on issues affecting regional and global security, and political engagement with the state of Afghanistan and Afghan stakeholders. On 29 December 2023, subsequent to the independent assessment, the UNSC adopted Resolution 2721, in an attempt to balance a call to reintegrate Afghanistan into the international community and the need to meet international obligations. The UNSC’s request for a Special Envoy for Afghanistan, with robust expertise on human rights and gender, sent a call from the main security body that these issues should be front and centre in a coordinated international response. The independent assessment lists the country’s counter-narcotics strategy as a key reason to engage with the Afghan government, noting the Taliban’s success in significantly reducing the ‘cultivation, processing and trafficking of narcotics’ in Afghanistan. It indicates that ‘[m]any stakeholders expressed interest in exploring greater international cooperation in this area, in particular on alternative crops and livelihoods for the hundreds of Afghans that have relied on the production and trade of narcotics for income’, and that counter-narcotics efforts are linked to addressing the basic needs of the Afghan people through livelihoods programmes. The country’s potential to become a source of uncontrolled outmigration is also listed as a risk factor for regional security  Since returning to power in August 2021, the Taliban has established and enforced stricter controls of the country’s vast informal economy. Some of the economies have been absorbed by the Taliban, while others have been strictly enforced against – the major trend has been consolidation in one way or the other from more heterogeneous markets. For instance, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has reported a major reduction in opium cultivation (estimated at 95 per cent year-on-year).8 This short-term success in significantly reducing illicit opium cultivation has had dire implications for the Afghan population and exacerbated the ongoing humanitarian crisis in the country. Over time, the country’s illicit economy has diversified to include a range of markets – from the trafficking of arms, mineral resources, timber, antiquities and licit commodities to human trafficking. This brief traces changes in the regulatory landscape and enforcement efforts by the Taliban in relation to various illicit markets within the context of the Taliban’s consolidation and centralization of power in Afghanistan. Its objective is to outline developments in illicit economies since the Taliban returned to power in Afghanistan in August 2021 and transformed from an insurgency group into a de facto government. In doing so, its aim is to provide the UN, member states and other stakeholders with a better understanding of the potential security risks and obstacles to sustainable development linked to the recent trends in the operations of Afghanistan’s illicit economies.  

: 

UNSC Illicit Economies Watch series

Geneva: Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime 2024. 27p.

By  Alastair MacBeath | Amanda Whitfort

  Wildlife crimes are regularly perceived as technical breaches of conservation regulations rather than as serious criminal offences that directly impact the species and the ecosystem from which they were removed. When such crimes have been prosecuted in court, the animal victims are habitually marginalized from consideration in sentencing decisions, as jurisdictions largely recognize animals only as legal property to be either confiscated or returned to their owners. However, the need for sentencing that considers the extent of the harm caused or likely to have been caused to the environment or species is gaining support. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)’s Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit identifies problems in deterring wildlife crime offences due to lenient sentences and encourages courts to consider the level of harm caused or likely to have been caused by the offence when determining the necessary penalty. This aim is to end the common perception that environmental crime is low risk and high reward. Academics and civil society organizations, largely working independently, have approached this problem by adapting victim impact statements (which have been used in prosecutions of other types of crime) for use in environmental crimes to represent the needs of species. Victim impact statements have been previously used in cases where the victims come from vulnerable groups, including the families of murdered people, women who have been trafficked and children who have been forced to work as child soldiers or labourers. Their use has therefore given these victims a voice to inform a court of the harm they have suffered, which can be considered by a judge during sentencing. This can help provide closure to the victim or to lay the foundations for restorative justice. As the animal and species victims of environmental crime are at a fundamental disadvantage because of their inability to speak, these ‘species victim impact statements’ are designed to give them a similar voice to inform presiding judges of the harm caused to them by wildlife and environmental crimes from a variety of perspectives. These range from an animal rights perspective due to the impact on individual animals from the pain and suffering associated with such crimes; to impacts at the species level relating to habitat destruction and population declines; and up to the environmental level due to damage to ecosystems. Furthermore, there is a precedent for the use of such statements in the sphere of environmental crime, with many jurisdictions accepting them in court to detail the harms associated with pollution offences. Such an approach would not only act as a deterrent against offending but would also address the interests of the species subjected to the illegal trade and repair the damage to the ecosystems caused by their removal.  

  This is an innovative approach that introduces ecocentric concerns into anthropocentric legal systems. It has grown into an effective body of practice, leading to increased sentences for environmental crimes in the countries where academics and civil society organizations promoting this tactic are operating, namely Hong Kong SAR, South Africa and Zambia. These successes prove that this concept can be scaled up to increase the number of jurisdictions using these tools, and can help to increase the effectiveness of the judiciary in deterring perpetrators of environmental crimes. This ‘community tool’ report is based on the concept created by the Hong Kong University Species Victim Impact Statement (SVIS) Initiative, which was started by Associate Professor Amanda Whitfort in 2015. The initiative is a collaboration between the University of Hong Kong’s Law Faculty and Conservation Forensics Laboratory and Kadoorie Farm and Botanical Garden. It also incorporates the work of other individuals and organizations who have developed similar tools, namely Professor Ray Jansen, a founding member and Africa Chair of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) Pangolin Specialist Group in South Africa, and the civil society organization Wildlife Crime Prevention, working in Zambia. This guide is the result of an analysis of academic reports and semi-structured interviews with those who have successfully used species victim impact statements in the jurisdictions in which they operate. It is designed to aid conservationists, civil society organizations and other interested parties responding to the illegal wildlife trade by explaining the background to species victim impact statements and their associated challenges, providing examples of their successful use in practice and offering guidance on how they can be developed and used in court.   

Geneva: Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime , 2024. 27p.

By  Edith Nyabichi

The report examines the regulatory and legal framework governing Kenya's mining industry and offers an in-depth exploration of the challenges and gaps in implementing and enforcing beneficial ownership in the country.

The report offers an analysis of Kenya's corporate income taxes, mining royalties, and other mining taxes, providing insight into the complex dynamics and possible risks of illicit financial flows (IFFs) within the sector. The GFI research outlines key deficiencies in the current system and offers practical recommendations to enhance transparency and accountability.  

Key findings of the report include:

• Regulatory and Legal Framework: An assessment of Kenya's current policies and regulations concerning the mining sector, emphasizing the need for reforms to reduce the risks associated with IFFs.

• Corporate Income Taxes and Mining Royalties: An analysis of the existing tax frameworks, with a focus on the identification of potential vulnerabilities and loopholes that could facilitate illicit financial activities.

• Beneficial Ownership Implementation Challenges: An examination of the legal, administrative, and operational challenges that hamper the enforcement of beneficial ownership transparency.

• Recommendations: Strategic recommendations designed to strengthen the regulatory framework, improve enforcement mechanisms, and promote greater transparency in the mining sector.

Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity (GFI), 2024. 33p.

By Sarah Pedersen,  Natascha Mueller-Hirth, Leia Miller

COVID-19 exacerbated challenges that already existed in the policing of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in remote and rural northern Scotland. Victims’ direct access to the police and third-sector organisations was impeded by social distancing while the pandemic exacerbated extant issues relating to staffing, particularly in relation to female police officers. On the positive side, the flexibility that already characterised rural and remote policing continued, and police officers and third-sector organisations worked together to support victims. The move to videoconferencing was hailed as a positive move in an area where travel to meetings or court can be difficult and expensive. A lack of training for officers with no specific GBV role was identified as particularly problematic during the pandemic when officers on the ground in rural and remote Scotland had to take over work usually undertaken by specialist task forces.

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 2023. 12p.

 By Virginia Comolli   

Building and expanding on the analysis in the Global Organized Crime Index, the GI-TOC has undertaken to map trends in organized criminality in the Pacific (Oceania). The resulting papers contribute to filling some of the gaps in a region where crime-related data can be scarce. In turn, these analyses allow us to identify vulnerabilities as well as opportunities for intervention and mitigation. The Pacific islands now occupy a more prominent place on the international strategic chessboard as a result of the proliferation of trade, diplomatic and security engagements in the region in the 21st century.  This is due to greater foreign presence and influence in Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia, and intensifying geopolitical competition among external partners. This reality, alongside greater connectivity and market trends, is also drastically  transforming the criminal landscape. Pacific islands have traditionally been considered as mostly immune from high levels of criminality due to their geographic remoteness.  However, highly pernicious illicit markets are taking hold, and the islands are becoming increasingly vulnerable to new threats in the form of cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crimes and the introduction of new narcotics, to mention just two examples. Who is behind these activities? There are multiple criminal actors present and active in the Pacific islands, but the most pervasive are foreign actors.  And within the foreign actor sub-set, there are a diverse array of nationalities and sectors. The one thing they have in common is their pivotal role vis a vis evolving crime dynamics. Across the series of papers, we map their different typologies. The emerging pictures suggest that, possibly contrary to expectations, business operators are often responsible for the bulk of organized criminality. This is particularly evident in the extractive industries, but also in sectors such as real estate and financial services. Yet, more ‘obvious’ criminal actors such as cartels and triads have also made their way to the islands and intensified their operations.

Geneva, SWIT:  Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. 2024. 29p.

By Daniel Kane, Kieran M. Kennedy, Karen Flood and, Maeve Eogan

Background: Sexual violence is a crime that affects people of all genders. While focus is frequently on female survivors, it is crucial to acknowledge that males also experience sexual violence and to ensure that gender-sensitive services are available to all survivors. Understanding the prevalence of, and factors associated with, sexual violence against males is a critical first step in addressing this issue. We aim to address the lack of data in relation to sexual violence against males. Methods: A cross-sectional study of all male attendances at 6 Sexual Assault Treatment Units (SATU) in the Republic of Ireland over a 6-year period and, where applicable, comparison with corresponding female attendances. Results: There were 381 male attendances with an average age of 28.5 years over the study period, representing 7 % of all SATU patients. There was a 24 % increase in male attendances during the study period. 39.1 % presented within 24 h of the assault. 61.9 % reported the crime to the police. Employment status included 37.3 % employed, 24.9 % unemployed, and 26.2 % students, with 86.7 % being Irish nationals. Most incidents occurred on weekdays (53.3 %) and at night (56.7 %). Referrals were primarily from police (55.9 %), and psychological support was provided in 62.3 % of cases. Alcohol (60.4 %) and illicit drugs (20.5 %) were reported before assaults. 18.6 % suspected drug-facilitated assaults. Male assailants constituted 90.1 %, with 13.9 % involving multiple assailants. Male attenders were significantly more likely than females to be assaulted in their assailant's home and to be assaulted by more than one assailant. They were significantly less likely than females to report the crime to the police or to have consumed alcohol. Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is one of the largest case series of male patients attending a sexual assault treatment service to be published in the international literature. Male patients are a distinct group that are increasingly accessing SATU services. Significant differences exist between male and female patients’ reported experiences of sexual violence. Knowledge of these factors will support appropriate tailoring of treatment & service provision, prevention and awareness strategies to help modify the impact and reduce the incidence of sexual violence in this cohort.

Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 2024. 6p. 

By Edwin H. Sutherland

Impact on Criminology: The book has significantly influenced criminological thought, leading to extended discussions and research on white collar crime.

White Collar Crime Definition: Sutherland argues that white collar crime is a violation of criminal law and must be considered in criminological theories

Social Impact: White collar crimes create distrust and social disorganization, affecting social morale more than ordinary crimes.

Research and References: The document includes numerous references to studies and articles that support the book's findings and arguments.

Yale University Press, 1983, 272 pages

By Nia Parson

Focus on Gendered Violence: The book explores the impact ofgendered violence, suffering, and care in Chile, particularly focusing onwomen's experiences of domestic violence.

Ethnographic Approach: The author uses life history narratives and ethnographic methods to provide a deep understanding of the women's experiences and the societal structures affecting them.

State and Non state Interventions: The book discusses the role of state and non state actors in addressing domestic violence and the challenges women face in seeking help and justice.

Personal Stories: The narratives of women like Luz, Marisol, andJosefina highlight the personal and emotional aspects of their struggles and recoveries.

Vanderbilt University Press, 2013, 204 pages

By William Foote Whyte

Research Background: The study was supported by various fellowships and guided by experts from Harvard and the University of Chicago.

Cornerville's Social Structure: The district is highly organized withdistinct social groups, despite being perceived as chaotic by outsiders.

Methodology: The author used participant observation, immersing himself in the community to understand its dynamics.

Community Impact: The research aimed to help Cornerville, with significant contributions from local residents and key informants.

University of Chicago Press, 2012, 364 pages

By Lloyd W. Klemke

Sociological Perspective: The book delves into the sociological aspectsof shoplifting, exploring its occurrence, techniques, and the profiles ofshoplifters.

Research and Theories: It examines various research studies andtheoretical frameworks related to shoplifting, including typologies andbehavioral theories.

Security and Prevention: The text discusses methods for detecting,apprehending, and preventing shoplifting, as well asthe role of storesecurity personnel

Legal and Social Responses: It addresses the legal system's response to shoplifting and the societal implications of this deviant behavior.

The document provides a comprehensive analysis of shoplifting from multiple angles within the field of criminology and sociology

Bloomsbury Academic, 1992, 159 pages

Linda Elisabeth LaPinta and Mary Angela Shaughnessy

Focus on Battered Women: The book, "Sisters in Pain," highlights the stories of battered women in Kentucky who fought back against their abusers, emphasizing their struggles and resilience.

Legal and Social Challenges: It discusses the legal and social challenges these women faced, including the lack of enforcement of domestic violence laws and the societal norms that perpetuate abuse.

Personal Narratives: The book includes personal narratives and interviews with the women, providing a deep, personal look into their experiences and the impact of abuse on their lives.

Call for Change: The authors aim to raise awareness and inspire action to improve the legal and social systems that fail to protect victims of domestic violence.

University Press of Kentucky, 2014, 214 pages

By Joyce E. Wiliams and Karen A. Holmes

Second Assault: Rape victims often face a "second assault" of skepticism, blame, and condemnation from society, family, and even themselves.

Racial-Sexual Stratification: The study examines rape through the lens of racial and sexual stratification, highlighting how race and gender impact victimization and societal reactions.

Victim Experiences: The research includes detailed accounts from victims, exploring their immediate needs, coping mechanisms, and the long-term impact of rape.

Community Attitudes: The document analyzes public attitudes towards rape, revealing significant differences based on race, gender, and community, and suggests tailored community interventions.

Bloomsbury Academic, 1981, 232 pages