By Dennis P. Rosenbaum

Calls for police reform play an integral part in the evolution of modern policing. But what truly needs reform is how police agencies evaluate their performance. Rather than determining effectiveness exclusively through crime-fighting statistics, police agencies must also incorporate assessments of how community members are treated. Evidence-based policing must acknowledge a large body of research on procedural justice and recognize the critical role it plays in determining police legitimacy. To implement effective reforms within this framework, the definition of “good policing” must be reimagined, as well as the metrics used to evaluate it. This Ideas in American Policing essay examines previous reform concepts and their shortfalls. It explores how human behavior is heavily influenced by incentives and disincentives and whether a strong enough reward system is in place to truly move officers from the “warrior” to the “guardian” mentality. Lastly, it examines what police leaders, government officials, and policing scholars will need to do to implement, successfully evaluate, and achieve lasting reform within the communities being served.

Ideas in American Policing 2024/

Arlington, VA: National Policing Institute, 2024. 18p.

By The National Policing Institute

The purpose of accreditation in law enforcement agencies is to establish a foundation of policies, procedures, and practices that promote optimal outcomes in policing. Consistent internal review of an agency’s policies and procedures, combined with third-party validation, supports the delivery of high-quality public safety services, and promotes a culture of accountability in policing. Stated simply, accreditation provides a roadmap for constitutional policing and ensures police agencies continuously consider legal standards, best practices, scientific evidence, and innovation. Many resources are available to law enforcement executives seeking to implement evidence informed and best practices in their agencies as part of the accreditation process. Model policies, training standards, and empirical research can all provide valuable information to inform police practice. National-level guidance on constitutional policing practices, however, can be particularly valuable. Indeed, the settlement agreements, including consent decrees, that the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) engages in with law enforcement agencies following “pattern or practice” investigations are presumed to outline important aspects of 21st Century Policing. The changes implemented by law enforcement agencies to address these agreements should, therefore, demonstrate aspects of constitutional policing in practice. Despite the value of the documentation surrounding these settlement agreements, there has been limited empirical examination of the organizational conditions and practices that precede formal intervention by the DOJ. The systematic identification of the factors contributing to DOJ involvement can provide critical insights for law enforcement executives who seek to be proactive in reviewing and enhancing their agency’s policies, training, and practices. In this vein, the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies contracted the services of the National Policing Institute (hereafter the Institute) in 2022 to review recent pattern or practice investigations conducted by the DOJ to identify: • The events and organizational factors that precede an investigation; • The issues most commonly examined by pattern or practice investigators; • The investigative process and methodological approaches used to identify patterns or practices of unconstitutional policing; • The evidence cited to support observations of unconstitutional policing; and • The remedial measures outlined by the DOJ to address unconstitutional policing practices. Between 2010 and 2022, the DOJ initiated 27 pattern or practice investigations into law enforcement agencies. In this report, the Institute research team presents findings from a qualitative examination of the 19 pattern or practice investigations that had investigative reports and/or findings letters available for review. Specifically, content analysis was conducted on 21 documents, including 11 investigative reports and 10 findings letters, that were available for review across these investigations. The analysis of these documents identifies the reported process, findings, and recommendations produced from 19 DOJ pattern or practice investigations of law enforcement agencies The remainder of this report is organized as follows: Section 02 provides background on the authority of the DOJ to conduct pattern or practice investigations and the context surrounding those investigations. Section 03 presents the results of the research team’s content analysis. Section 04 provides a discussion of the findings and conclusion of the report. The methodology used to identify the sample of pattern or practice investigations and analyze the content of the investigative reports and findings letters for those investigations is outlined in Appendix A

Arlington VA: The National Policing Institute, 2023. 40p.

By IBAC - Independent Broad-based Anti-corruption Commission

The Focused Police Complaints Pilot (Pilot) was a trial by the Independent Broad-based Anti-corruption Commission (IBAC) to establish a dedicated team to assess and investigate single incident complaints about the conduct of Victoria Police personnel from people who are at a higher risk of experiencing misconduct. These communities included: • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples • people with disability • people who identify as LGBTIQA+ • people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds • people aged under 25 years • people with mental illness, where their mental illness is linked to their engagement with police • people who have a reasonable fear of their safety. As Victoria’s anti-corruption and police oversight agency, the purpose of IBAC is to prevent and expose public sector corruption and police misconduct. IBAC relies on the trust of the Victorian community to perform our role to keep the public sector and Victoria Police accountable. In practice, this means we rely on community members to know about IBAC, feel confident to contact us to make a complaint and feel assured that IBAC will fairly and independently assess the complaint and investigate it when appropriate. IBAC recognises the challenges faced by people making a complaint about suspected corruption or police misconduct. Whether these challenges arise for social, economic or cultural reasons or because it can be difficult to speak out, IBAC understands that making a complaint or being part of an IBAC investigation may be a confronting experience. To help address these barriers, the objectives of this Pilot were to: • improve the timeliness of IBAC’s complaints assessment, investigation and outcome notifications to reduce IBAC’s response times for complainants through an accelerated pathway for police complaints from the identified communities • increase transparency and complainants’ understanding of the outcomes of complaints • trial better means to identify focus community complainants. The Pilot ran from October 2023 to April 2024 and an internal evaluation was completed in June 2024. This report provides an overview of IBAC’s work to establish and operate the Pilot. It also outlines the outcomes of the Pilot and the next steps for this important work.

Melbourne: State of Victoria , (Independent Broad-based Anti-corruption Commission) 2024. 16p.

By Josephine Wonsun Hahn, Ram Subramanian, and Tiffany Sanabia  

  Low-level offenses, especially misdemeanors, constitute a majority of the nation’s criminal dockets, including in New York City. A Brennan Center report examining minor offense enforcement trends finds that the city’s minor offense system has shrunk since 2010. But enforcement still falls hardest on communities that have high proportions of people of color and experience elevated levels of poverty. Minor offense criminal justice reform has so far not made a dent in the troubling racial disparities in cases across the city.  Brennan Center researchers interviewed police, prosecutors, court officials, city government officials, criminal justice advocacy organizations, community-based service providers, and community leaders — people who contribute to public safety efforts in neighborhoods most impacted by minor offense enforcement — to better understand what may be driving interactions with the city’s minor offense criminal justice system and perpetuating racial disparities. Study participants, as well as previous research, point to particular drivers often referred to as social determinants of justice: social disadvantages such as poverty, housing instability, poor mental health, and substance use; poor conditions and a lack of resources in the most impacted communities; and the criminal justice system’s persistent inability to address social problems and community needs. While recent increases in public disorder in New York City may invite simplified punitive responses that expand enforcement, such responses are unlikely to fundamentally change the conditions under which minor offenses — including those related to nuisance and disorder — grow. No strong empirical evidence exists demonstrating the effectiveness of punitive enforcement in either changing disorderly behavior or reducing crime. In particular, one 2019 meta-analysis contradicts the assumed causal connection between disorder and crime; another finds that aggressive order-maintenance enforcement that targets individual disorderly behaviors does not significantly reduce crime, whereas community and problem-solving approaches do. Such approaches involve people in the community to help identify problems and solutions — and can include non–criminal justice responses, such as referrals to community-based service providers. In any event, a punitive-only approach  also comes at too high a financial and human cost. Minor criminal offenses, most of which do not result in a jail sentence, can cause people to lose their jobs and homes, become unemployable, or be burdened with unpayable fines and fees. These compounding burdens make it even harder for people already struggling to exit the revolving door of the criminal justice system.5 Promising strategies already exist in New York City to address root causes of crime and disorder via programs with targeted interventions and resources within communities with high numbers of minor offense cases. These mostly small-scale experiments provide examples of the choices the city can make to help prevent crime while also reducing the cycle of criminal justice system involvement that helps fuel racial disparities. New York City can build on these strategies and programs to both shrink overly punitive responses and address some of the drivers of criminalized behavior in precincts with high caseloads. Although the programs and practices discussed below are based in New York City, many will be relevant to policymakers across the country. Some cities, counties, and states have adopted similar practices that divert people charged with minor offenses — many of whom face substance use, trauma, and mental health problems — from the justice system. Like New York City, other jurisdictions are looking to community-based strategies for solutions outside the criminal justice system. However, these innovations remain limited in scale and scope. Rules governing eligibility shut too many people out, often focusing on only a narrow slice of the population charged with minor offenses — typically a small subset of youth, people with mental illness, people who use drugs, people arrested and charged for the first time, or people arrested and charged with nonviolent offenses.6 There also may be structural limitations based on geography, funding, or capacity. To achieve a smaller, more responsive system that better addresses underlying needs and racial disparities, state and local policymakers, with support from nonprofit organizations and private philanthropy, should consider a range of effective strategies that target communities with elevated minor offense enforcement — neighborhoods in New York City that are home to predominantly Black and Latino populations. These starting steps include: ƒ scaling up successful diversion programs; ƒ building crisis response systems to address mental health and substance use; ƒ expanding supportive housing programs; and ƒ investing in crime-prevention models in which law enforcement, residents, city agencies, and others work together to build public safety and address community needs    

New York: Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law, 2024. 17p.

By Rafael A. Mangual

After a long period of continuous violent-crime declines throughout the U.S.—spanning from the mid-1990s through the early 2010s—many American cities are now seeing significant increases in violence. Nationally, in 2015 and 2016, murders rose nearly 11% and 8%, respectively. The national homicide rate declined slightly in 2017 and 2018, before ticking upward in 2019. In 2020, the nation saw its largest single-year spike in homicides in at least 100 years—which was followed by another increase in murders in 2021, according to CDC data and FBI estimates. In the last few years, a number of cities have seen murders hit an all-time high. In addition to homicides, the risk of other types of violent victimizations rose significantly, as well. While various analyses estimated a slight decline in homicides for the country in 2022, many American cities still find themselves dealing with levels of violence far higher than they were a decade ago. While violent crime—particularly murder—is the most serious due in large part to its social costs, there have also been worrying increases in crimes such as retail theft, carjacking, and auto theft, as well as in other visible signs of disorder in public spaces (from open-air drug use and public urination to illegal street racing and large-scale looting and riots). Although several contributing factors are likely, this general deterioration in public safety and order was unquestionably preceded and accompanied by a virtually unidirectional shift toward leniency and away from accountability in the policing, prosecutorial, and criminal-justice policy spaces. That shift is evidenced by, among other things, three major trends in enforcement: • A 25% decline in the number of those imprisoned during 2011–2212 • A 15% decline in the number of those held in jail during 2010–2113 • A 26% decline in the number of arrests effected by law-enforcement officers during 2009–1914 Notable contributing factors to the decline in enforcement include: • A sharp uptick in public scrutiny and interventions—in the form of investigations and legal action taken by state attorneys general and the federal Department of Justice—against local law-enforcement agencies • The worsening of an ongoing police recruitment and retention crisis, particularly in large urban departments • The electoral success of the so-called progressive prosecutor movement, which, by 2022, had won seats in 75 jurisdictions, representing more than 72 million U.S. residents • Perhaps most important, the adoption of a slew of criminal-justice and policing reform measures at all levels of government Those who are skeptical of the criminal-justice reform movement have devoted most of their efforts to arguing against the movement’s excesses and explaining why it would be unwise to enact certain measures. Less effort has been devoted to the extremely important task of articulating a positive agenda for regaining what has been lost on the safety and order front. This paper seeks to add to that positive agenda for safety by proposing three model policies that, if adopted, would help, directly and indirectly, stem the tide of rising crime and violence, primarily by maximizing the benefits that attend the incapacitation of serious criminals (especially repeat offenders) and by encouraging the collection and public reporting of data that can inform the public about the downside risks that are glossed over by decarceration and depolicing activists.

New York: Manhattan Institute, 2023. 19p.