By: The National Association of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Following a series of natural disasters, including Hurricane Katrina, that revealed shortcomings in the nation's ability to effectively alert populations at risk, Congress passed the Warning, Alert, and Response Network (WARN) Act in 2006. Today, new technologies such as smart phones and social media platforms offer new ways to communicate with the public, and the information ecosystem is much broader, including additional official channels, such as government social media accounts, opt-in short message service (SMS)-based alerting systems, and reverse 911 systems; less official channels, such as main stream media outlets and weather applications on connected devices; and unofficial channels, such as first person reports via social media. Traditional media have also taken advantage of these new tools, including their own mobile applications to extend their reach of beyond broadcast radio, television, and cable. Furthermore, private companies have begun to take advantage of the large amounts of data about users they possess to detect events and provide alerts and warnings and other hazard-related information to their users.

More than 60 years of research on the public response to alerts and warnings has yielded many insights about how people respond to information that they are at risk and the circumstances under which they are most likely to take appropriate protective action. Some, but not all, of these results have been used to inform the design and operation of alert and warning systems, and new insights continue to emerge. Emergency Alert and Warning Systems reviews the results of past research, considers new possibilities for realizing more effective alert and warning systems, explores how a more effective national alert and warning system might be created and some of the gaps in our present knowledge, and sets forth a research agenda to advance the nation's alert and warning capabilities.

ISBN 978-0-309-46737-7 | DOI 10.17226/24935

By: Ronald W. Perry, Marjorie R. Greene, and Michael K. Lindell

As a strategy for manipulating the consequences of disasters, evacuation - that is, the relocation of people from a place of high threat to a relatively safer place - has a particularly long history and constitutes a common societal adjustment to environmental hazards. The Greek historian Herodotus described the Egyptians systematic evacuations to escape the seasonal flooding of the Nile River as early as the fourth century B.C. During the Middle Ages in Europe, significant movements of populations occurred as a function of people’s attempts to escape various epidemics. The history of warfare, from the Dorian invasion of central Greece in 1130 B.C., through the Vietnam conflict of the 1970s and the recent invasion of Afghanistan, is also a history of population movements, many of which began as evacuations. Thus, evacuation has been used by many societies for centuries as an adjustment to cope with disasters.

Particularly with regard to riverine flooding, pre-impact evacuation of the threatened population is an important management strategy which may be used by authorities. Of course, evacuation is not the only, or even the “best”, means of coping with flood hazards. Other options include controlled building in flood plains and enhanced building design and construction techniques. Such measures, however, are easily incorporated into new construction and communities, but not so easy to institute in established comnites where such protections tend to be developed slowly in connection with continuous building and renovation. Thus, many communities must depend, in part or completely, upon measures other than elaborate land use planning or restrictive construction codes in their plans to adjust to floods.

Disasters, Vol.4, No.4.pp.433449

By David Weisburd, Clair V. Uding, Kiseong Kuen, Beidi Dong

Criminologists have long known that crime is highly concentrated—in most cities, approximately 50% of crime happens on only 5% of streets. As a result, many cities have effectively reduced crime by concentrating police resources in extremely high-crime “hot-spots.” Despite calls for defunding the police, policing is necessary for public safety on hot-spot streets, and people who live on these streets recognize that. Indeed, in one survey in Phoenix, Arizona, the majority of residents of hot-spots streets said they wanted the amount of police on their block to be increased. But ultimately, the bedrock of social control of crime is not the police, but citizens who exercise informal social control. The practice of community policing—which emphasizes building relationships with members of the community and allowing them to have a voice in defining which problems police should focus on—attempts to leverage this fact to enhance public safety. However, it is often assumed that high-crime hot spots are simply so chaotic and disordered that the residents are incapable of playing a key role in crime prevention.

We examined this assumption through a multiyear study of more than 300 hot-spot streets in Baltimore, Maryland (all of which were in the top 3% in rates of violent or drug crime in the city), as well as almost 50 “cold” streets, which had little to no crime, and 100 “cool” streets, which fell in the middle. We found that common assumptions about hot spots—which we shared at the outset—are not accurate. Residents of hot-spot streets in Baltimore have strong social and network ties with their neighbors, and they exercise meaningful levels of informal social control. Even on the most crime ridden blocks, there is potential for collaboration between residents and police. Our findings suggest that it is time to think about how both informal and formal social control can work interactively to reduce crime. Hot-spots policing is an important first step, because the level of danger in these places can simply make it too dangerous for residents to exercise the type of informal social control that they would like. But residents of these streets, contrary to stereotypes of academics, policymakers, and practitioners, form an important resource for reducing crime on these streets through informal social control.

New York: The Manhattan Institute, 2024. 18p,

By United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute

Historical Context: The document outlines the evolution of Sovietcriminology through three stages: the 1920s, the 1960s "thaw," and the period of perestroika and glasnost in the 1980s.

Crime Trends: There was a significant increase in crime rates,particularly serious crimes, from the 1970s to the 1980s. The Document highlights issues like recidivism, professionalization of economic crime, and the rise in crimes among students and rural inhabitants.

Criminal Legislation: The document discusses the need for reforms inSoviet criminal law, emphasizing the importance of clear and logical legal language to reduce errors in the justice system.

Social and Psychological Factors: It explores the socio-psychological mechanisms behind criminal behavior, including the influence of social environment, personal traits, and the process of socialization.

UNICRI, 1990, 179 pages

By Steve Kirkwood and Leo Kritikos

High-level political support for restorative justice in Scotland is at its strongest for many years, and yet its availability is lower now than in the mid-2000s. To explore the reasons behind this paradox, we undertook an oral history project focused on the origins and development of restorative justice in Scotland. Based on 15 interviews with professionals, we tracked how the nature, objectives and scale of restorative justice has evolved in Scotland over time. Our analysis shows how the meaning and purpose of justice initiatives can shift, providing insight into policy development and broader debates about the role of justice responses.

The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice Early View, 2024.

May Contain Markup

By Tony Parker

Study of Recidivism: The book explores the life of 'Charlie Smith,' habitual criminal, to understand the broader issue of recidivism and the challenges faced by repeat offenders.

Humanizing Criminals: It emphasizes treating criminals as human beings with complex backgrounds and not just as statistics or typical representatives of criminal behavior.

Systemic Failures: The narrative highlights the systemic failures in addressing the root causes of criminal behavior and the ineffectiveness of punishment alone.

Personal Struggles: Charlie's story reveals his personal struggles, lack of support, and the societal challenges that contribute to his repeated offenses.

Faber & Faber, Jul 16, 2013, 176 pages

By W. H. Hammond & Edna Chayen

Study Focus: The document examines persistent offenders liable to preventive detention in 1956, analyzing their criminal characteristics and the effectiveness of preventive detention.

Preventive Detention: It highlights the ineffectiveness of preventive detention in reducing crime among persistent offenders, noting that only a small proportion are diverted from crime.

Comparison: The study compares these offenders with those from a previous study byProfessor Norval Morris, finding similar characteristics over a 20-year period.

Recommendations: Suggestions are made for improving the selection and treatment of offenders to better protect society and rehabilitate criminals.

London, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1963, 237 pages

May Contain Markup

By Donald Powell Wilson

Psychologist's Experience: The author, a psychologist, spent three years at Fort Leavenworth Penitentiary, significantly changing his perspective and approach to his profession.

Research Focus: The book is a personal account of the author's research on drug addiction and criminality, highlighting the human stories of his six convict assistants.

Prison Environment: The narrative provides a vivid description of the penitentiary's environment, including the strict security measures and the daily routines of the inmates.

Challenges and Adaptation: The author faced numerous challenges,including gaining the trust of the inmates and navigating the prison complex social dynamics.

Pocket Books, 1953, 369 pages

May Contain Markup

Edited by Peter Becker & Richard F. Wetzell

Historical Scope: The book covers the history of criminology from the late 18th to mid-20th centuries across various countries, includingWestern Europe, the United States, Argentina, Australia, andJapan.

Criminological Discourse: It examines criminology as a discourse and practice, involving police, courts, parliamentary debates, media reports,and writings of statisticians, jurists, and medical doctors..

Cesare Lombroso's Influence: The book provides a comparative study of the worldwide reception of Lombroso's criminal-anthropological ideas and their impact on criminological discourse.

Interdisciplinary Approach: The chapters highlight the relationship between criminological discourse and politics, society, and culture,integrating perspectives from history, sociology, and medical science.

Cambridge University Press, 2006, 492 pages

By Patricio Domínguez Kenzo Asahi 

This paper studies the effect of ambient light on crime, taking advantage of the daylight saving time (DST) policy, which imposes exogenous variations in daylight exposure at specific hours of the day. The paper uses a rich administrative database managed by Chile’s national police, a centralized agency that collects detailed information regarding each crime incident. A 20% decrease (increase) in crimes is found when the DST transition increases (decreases) the amount of sunlight by one hour during the 7-9 p.m. period. Importantly, no significant response is detected induced by DST associated with a plausible demand-side response such as the population’s commuting time pattern, and no substantial short-term displacement is found. Most of the changes in property crime due to the DST policy are driven by robbery in residential areas.

Washington DC: IBD, 2019. 73p.

By Patricio Domínguez 

This paper models crime rates as a function of the interaction between potential offenders and victims. In particular, the paper studies robbery of bus drivers, a crime that remains common in cities throughout the world. Exploiting the timing of a significant reform introduced in Chile in the public transportation sector and detailed administrative data on crime incidents, the paper shows how victims' propensity to resist an attack can alter the level and nature of criminal activity. The paper also finds a large decline in crime after the implementation of a technological innovation that eliminated cash transactions on buses. The results suggest a strong relationship between victims incentives, cash presence, and crime.

Washington DC: IDB, 2020. 70p.

By Jinmei Feng, Hong Ma, Mingzhi Xu, Wei You

This study estimates the causal impact of the massive installation of surveillance cameras on crime, using novel data from China between 2014 and 2019. Using the number of preexisting local camera producers as the instrument for the density of camera installation, we find that cities with denser surveillance networks experienced significantly faster declines in crime. The reduction is more pronounced for publicly visible crimes. Enhanced surveillance is associated with higher satisfaction with the government and a greater sense of security, leading to longer hours worked, especially for women. A back-of-envelope calculation shows preventing a crime costs approximately $5,922, which is highly cost-effective.

Unpublished paper, 2024 

By Kellen R. Funk & Sandra G. Mayson

How did criminal bail work in the Founding era? This question has become pressing as bail, and bail reform, have attracted increasing attention, in part because history is thought to bear on the meaning of bail-related constitutional provisions. To date, however, there has been no thorough account of bail at the Founding. This Article begins to correct the deficit in our collective memory by describing bail law and practice in the Founding era, from approximately 1790 to 1810. In order to give a full account, we surveyed a wide range of materials, including Founding-era statutes, case law, legal treatises, and manuals for magistrates; and original court, jail, administrative, and justice-of-the-peace records held in archives and private collections.The historical inquiry illuminates three key facts. First, the black-letter law of bail in the Founding era was highly protective of pretrial liberty. A uniquely American framework for bail guaranteed release, in theory, for nearly all accused persons. Second, things were different on the ground. The primary records reveal that, for those who lived on the margins of society, bail practice bore little resemblance to the law on the books, and pretrial detention was routine. The third key point cuts across the law and reality of criminal bail: both in theory and in practice, the bail system was a system of unsecured pledges, not cash deposits. It operated through reputational capital, not financial capital. This fact refutes the claim, frequently advanced by opponents of contemporary bail reform, that cash bail is a timeless American tradition. The contrast between the written ideals and the actual practice of bail in the Founding era, meanwhile, highlights the difficulty of looking to the past for a determinate guide to legal meaning.

Harvard Law Review, VOLUME 137, ISSUE 7, MAY 2024

May Contain Markup

Developed by Wesley G. Skogan & William R. Klecka

Purpose and Development: The module "The Fear of Crime" was developed by Wesley G. Skogan and William R. Klecka, using victimization survey data collected by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. It aims to study crime and public fear of crime using survey data.

Historical Context: The document references President Johnson's 1965 initiative to combat crime, noting significant increases in crime rates and public fear of crime over the following decade.

Survey Methodology: The surveys used to gather data included both victimization and attitude questionnaires, focusing on personal attributes, crime experiences, and perceptions of crime.

City Comparisons: The module compares data from New York City andSan Diego, highlighting differences in crime rates, victimization, and public fear of crime between the two cities.

American Political Science Association, 1977, 82 pages

May Contain Markup

Biological Contributions to Crime Causation Edited by T.E. Moffitt and S.A. Mednick

Biological Factors: The document explores various biological contributions to criminal behavior, including genetics, neuropsychology, and psychophysiology

Research Evolution: It highlights the progress in biological crime research from 1982 to 1986, noting increased acceptance and reduced criticism.

Interdisciplinary Approach: Emphasizes the importance of combining biological, psychological, and social factors to understand criminal behavior.

Focus on Violent Behavior: Several chapters specifically address the biological underpinnings of violent behavior

Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, 332 pages

May Contain Markup

By Theodor Reik

Psychology of Crime: The book explores the deep psychological forces driving criminal behavior and the unconscious need for self-punishment.

Role of Psychoanalysis: Reik applies psychoanalytic methods to understand the motives behind crimes, emphasizing the importance of unconscious guilt and the compulsion to confess.

Historical and Social Context: The book discusses the evolution of criminal investigation techniques and the psychological aspects of crime detection.

Freud's Influence: Sigmund Freud's views on capital punishment and his correspondence with Reik are included, highlighting the intersection of psychoanalysis and criminology

Books for Libraries Press, 1972, 493 pages

May Contain Markup

By C.W. Topping

New Penology: The book discusses the concept of the new penology, which focuses on a comprehensive system of treatment and prevention, starting from childhood and continuing throughout life.

Crime Prevention: Emphasizes the importance of family counseling, community organization, and social group work in preventing crime.

Prison Reform: Contrasts old and new prison systems, highlighting the need for modern facilities, educational programs, and rehabilitation efforts.

Scientific Approach: Stresses the role of scientific research and the involvement of psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers in understanding and treating criminal behavior..

Saddlebag Books, 1960, 82 pages

Edited by Ugljesa Zvekic

Crime and Development: The essays explore the complex relationship between crime and development, highlighting how social transformations impact crime rates and criminal justice systems.

Theoretical Frameworks: There is no universal theory linking crime and development. The essays call for more flexible and context-specific research.

Internationalization of Crime: The essays discuss how globalization and economic interdependence contribute to the spread of organized crime and corporate crime.

Formal and Informal Control: The importance of both formal and iInformal social control mechanisms in managing crime is emphasized, particularly in developing countries

United Nations International Crime and Justice Research Institute, 1990, 377 pages

May Contain Markup

By Russil Durrant & Tony Ward

Evolutionary Criminology: The book argues for integrating evolutionary theory with criminology to enhance understanding and management of criminal behavior.

Interdisciplinary Approach: Criminology should incorporate insights from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and evolutionary biology.

Human Behavior: Understanding criminal behavior requires considering evolutionary processes, cultural history, and developmental factors.

Practical Applications: The book discusses how evolutionary theory can inform punishment, prevention, and rehabilitation strategies in criminal justice.

Academic Press, 2015, 331 pages

By Theodore N. Ferdinand

Purists vs. Empiricists: The document discusses the debate betweenPurists, who believe delinquency is rooted in social processes, andEmpiricists, who consider multiple factors, including psychological and physiological, in explaining delinquency.

Types of Typologies: It outlines three kinds of typologies:Logical,Empirical, andIdeal, each serving different functions in understanding delinquency.

Social Class and Delinquency: The document examines how different social classes, from the upper upper-class to the lower lower-class,exhibit distinct patterns of delinquent behavior.

Psychological Typologies: Various psychological typologies of delinquency are explored, including those by Alexander and Staub,Abrahamsen, and others, highlighting different psychological profiles of delinquents.

Random House, 1966, 246 pages