By Human Rights Watch

The 175-page report, “‘I Learned How to Say No’: Labor Abuses & Sexual Exploitation in Colombian Webcam Studios,” exposes working conditions in webcam studios in Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, and Palmira, where models record content that is broadcasted by adult platforms and streamed around the world. Webcamming is a global industry in which studies estimate that platforms keep between 50 and 65 percent of what viewers pay. People interviewed said that studios retain as much as 70 percent of what is paid out by the platform, reducing the pay of workers. Adult webcam platforms based in the United States and Europe should immediately address labor abuses and sexual exploitation in Colombian webcam studios.

New York: Human Rights Watch, 2024. 285p.

By Michael Garcia Bochenek

In the last few months of 2017, public defenders working in United States communities along the US-Mexico border began noticing a pattern. Over several months, they had seen an increasing number of people facing criminal charges for irregularly crossing the border arriving in court with a new concern: When these people had a chance to speak in court, their primary worry was not that they were facing prosecution; instead, they were asking the judges where their children were. These public defenders were seeing the early days of the forcible family separation policy put in place by the administration of US President Donald J. Trump and developed in a larger context of overheated, dehumanizing, and at times racist official rhetoric toward migrants. The policy began in March 2017 as a pilot program in and around El Paso, Texas, and was then rolled out along the entire US-Mexico border in early 2018. The policy deployed a minor federal criminal charge—“improper entry”—to force children and parents apart. Its official name, “Zero Tolerance,” referred to Attorney General Jeff Sessions’ directive that every adult who entered the United States irregularly would face prosecution. Criminal charges for improper entry have long been misused as a means of immigration enforcement, raising serious human rights concerns. More than five years before Sessions’ “zero tolerance” directive, improper entry and improper reentry were the most prosecuted federal crimes in the United States. As misguided and abusive as this earlier use of such charges was, it had not deliberately targeted children and their parents. In fact, before mid-2017, the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) generally did not request prosecution of parents arriving with their children and federal prosecutors had usually declined to pursue improper entry charges against parents traveling with their children precisely to avoid separating arriving families. The policy developed at Sessions’ directive did not appear primarily aimed at securing convictions. Although a criminal conviction would mean more serious consequences on a subsequent irregular entry, the offense is, as a federal magistrate judge observed, “quite literally one of the least serious federal offenses.”1 The real payoff, as far as the architects of the policy were concerned, was that a criminal charge could be used as a reason to transfer the immediate responsibility for protective care of the child. Parents who faced charges were in the custody of the US Marshals Service. Their children remained in US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) detention. The parents were rapidly convicted—some spent less than a minute in front of the judge once their case was called, and most received sentences of time already served in government custody, so they were back in CBP holding cells in short order. In the meantime, however, DHS, the federal government department that includes CBP, had deemed their children to be unaccompanied. DHS agents not only knew exactly where the parents were but also knew that the parents would quickly return to CBP detention. Even so, the department treated the brief change in custody as meaning that parents were not “available” to provide care. Unaccompanied migrant children are entitled to specific protections. In response to a court case settled in 1997, Flores v. Reno, care of unaccompanied children is the responsibility of the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR), an agency of the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). A 2008 anti-trafficking law requires DHS to transfer unaccompanied children to ORR expeditiously, usually within 72 hours. The forcible family separation policy weaponized these requirements. Keeping families together is, in the vast majority of these types of cases, in children's best interests. But instead of making every effort to keep families together, DHS transferred the children it had separated to ORR, without planning for or putting measures in place that would enable authorities to reunite them with their parents. Discussions about separating children from their parents at the border began less than a month after President Trump took office. One federal prosecutor commented in early 2017, “History would not judge that kindly.” 2 In March 2017, after Reuters broke the story that family separation was under consideration, a DHS staffer emailed Allen Blume, the department’s budget director, to say, “I would be truly grateful if you could tell me this isn’t being seriously considered.” 3 This report is based on a review of public and internal government documents, legal proceedings, and the findings of DHS, DOJ, and HHS internal investigations, drawing on Human Rights Watch’s extensive interviews with forcibly separated children and parents in 2018 and 2019. It finds that the forcible separation of children from their parents was a deliberate, targeted policy choice taken even though the architects of the policy knew or should have known that it would inflict anguish and suffering on families. Forcible separation of children from their families inflicted harms that were severe and foreseeable. Once parents realized they would not be immediately reunited with their children, they were distraught. Some children sobbed uncontrollably. Many felt abandoned. Nearly all were bewildered, not least because immigration officials would not tell them where their parents were or gave responses that proved to be lies. Children forcibly separated from their parents experienced anxiety, had nightmares, regressed to earlier developmental stages, or found it difficult to trust others and form attachments. Some lashed out. Others stopped speaking.

New York: Human Rights Watch, 2024, 145p.

By The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE)

Women and girls are more likely to be the targets of cyber violence on digital platforms and, as a result, they experience significant physical, sexual and psychological distress and/or financial difficulties. ▪ There is limited provision in digital platforms’ standards and trust and safety policies for keeping users safe from gender-related cyber violence online, despite the high incidence of this phenomenon. ▪ The standards and trust and safety policies of the platforms make little reference to relevant human rights acts or important legislative advances in the fight against gender-based violence and cyber violence. ▪ Digital platforms dealing with the significant challenges of cyber violence acts and behaviours would benefit from greater collaboration across platforms. This would enable cross-platform reporting and the harmonisation of the wide variety of definitions of cyber violence. ▪ Digital platforms do not have cyber violence data that is disaggregated by sex available for incident reporting, response and followup practices. This renders the assessment of the true extent of cyber violence acts and behaviours against women and girls challenging. More transparency is needed in relation to moderation and follow-up practices. ▪ This lack of a gender-sensitive approach at the level of reporting, recording and responding to different forms of violence online renders the scale of the phenomenon of cyber violence against women and girls largely invisible and contributes to obscuring its dynamics.

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2024 22p.

By Jonathan Haggerty and Arthur Rizer

After the Trump administration implemented its “zero tolerance” immigration policy in early 2018, stories of children being ripped from their mother’s arms and extended family separations emerged. Initially, administration officials denied the existence of any policy aimed at separating families at the border. Others later claimed the separations were unintentional. However, a recent review of a leaked report from the Office of the Inspector General reveals both claims were false. This report revealed staff members from the White House and the Departments of Justice and Homeland Security met on multiple occasions to craft a plan, which they knew would separate migrant children from their parents, with the explicit goal of deterring illegal border crossings. The resulting outrage eventually prompted President Trump to partially rescind the “zero tolerance” policy and fueled the political left’s opposition to the Trump administration’s handling of immigration laws. As a new administration takes office, immigration advocates have produced an exhaustive list of border policies for the Biden White House to repeal, but this administration will have to prioritize which of the Trump-era immigration regulations to address first. And, while the political left undoubtedly presents a strong case against the “zero tolerance” prosecutions undertaken by its predecessor, a robust set of conservative arguments against this policy offers the Biden administration ample, cross-ideological support for a new approach.

R STREET POLICY STUDY NO. 212 November 2020, 7p.

Edited by J. W. Cross

"George Eliot's Life" by J.W. Cross is a three-volume biography that provides a detailed account of the life of the renowned author George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans). Compiled by her husband, John Walter Cross, the biography is based on her letters and journals, offering a unique perspective on her personal and professional life.

Volume 1 covers Eliot's early life from 1819 to 1857. It begins with her childhood, her move to Coventry, and her early literary career. It also details her travels to Geneva and her initial forays into writing[1].

Volume 2: The second volume spans the years 1857 to 1870, focusing on Eliot's rise to literary fame. It includes her relationships with key figures in the literary world, her partnership with George Henry Lewes, and the publication of her major works such as "Adam Bede" and "Middlemarch"[1].

Volume 3: This final volume covers Eliot's later years, from 1870 until her death in 1880. It discusses her continued literary success, her marriage to John Cross, and her reflections on her life and work. It also includes insights into her personal struggles and triumphs[1].

These volumes provide a comprehensive look at George Eliot's life, though some critics have noted that Cross's portrayal may lack some of the "salt and spice" of Eliot's unconventional life[2][1].

Originally published by HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1885.

By Michael T. Light, Jason P. Robey, Jungmyung Kim

Although minor forms of criminal justice contact are increasingly used to identify immigration violators, little research has been conducted at the intersection of immigration and misdemeanor justice. As a result, citizenship remains undertheorized in punishment research and fundamental questions remain unanswered. In this article, we introduce the “crimmigrant” punishment framework to conceptualize the unique case processing consequences for non–U.S. citizens and undocumented immigrants. We then draw on rich case data from all misdemeanor arrests in Texas and California between 2006 and 2018 to establish four notable findings. (1) Misdemeanors are common and consequential. We observe more than 1.4 million misdemeanor arrests involving non–U.S. citizens, the overwhelming majority of which resulted in criminal charges and formal punishments. (2) The offenses that funnel noncitizens into the misdemeanor system are similar to those of U.S. citizens; however, we do observe an appreciable number of arrests linked to noncitizens’ legal status (e.g., giving false information). (3) Once in the misdemeanor system, noncitizens, and especially undocumented immigrants, are significantly more likely to be convicted and incarcerated compared with similarly situated U.S. citizens. (4) These disparities are more severe in Texas than in California.

Criminology, Volume 62, Issue 4, 2024, pages 655-703

The four volumes of Thomas Paine's writings, edited by Moncure Daniel Conway, offer a comprehensive collection of Paine's influential works. Here's a brief summary of each volume:

1. Volume 1 includes early political writings, such as Common Sense and The American Crisis. These works were pivotal in inspiring American colonists to seek independence from Britain. Paine's clear and persuasive arguments helped galvanize public opinion in favor of the revolutionary cause[1].

2. Volume 2 focuses on Paine's writings during the French Revolution. It includes "Rights of Man," in which Paine defends the Revolution and argues for natural rights and democratic government. His critiques of monarchy and advocacy for social reforms are central themes.

3. Volume 3 contains Paine's religious and philosophical writings, most notably "The Age of Reason." In this work, Paine critiques organized religion and promotes deism, emphasizing reason and scientific inquiry over religious dogma.

4. Volume 4: This final volume includes Paine's later political and social writings, such as "Agrarian Justice." In it, Paine discusses economic inequality and proposes a form of social security funded by a landowner tax. The volume also includes various letters and essays on political and social issues.

These volumes collectively showcase Paine's profound impact on political thought and his enduring legacy as a champion of liberty, equality, and reason.

John Bunyan (1628-1688) was a prolific English writer and preacher, best known for his allegorical works that reflect his deep Christian faith and experiences. Here's an overview of some of his most notable works:

1. The Pilgrim's Progress: This is Bunyan's most famous work, an allegory of a Christian's journey from the "City of Destruction" to the "Celestial City." It is divided into two parts, following the protagonist, Christian, and later his wife, Christiana.

2. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners: This autobiographical work details Bunyan's spiritual journey and conversion, offering a candid look at his inner struggles and ultimate redemption.

3. The Holy War: Another allegory, this book depicts the battle for the town of Mansoul, representing the human soul, between Shaddai (God) and Diabolus (Satan).

4. The Life and Death of Mr. Badman: This work is a companion to The Pilgrim's Progress, presenting a contrasting narrative of a wicked man's life and the consequences of his sinful actions.

5. The Heavenly Footman: A treatise encouraging Christians to persevere in their faith and strive for spiritual goals, using the metaphor of a race.

6. The Barren Fig Tree: This work explores the Bible parable of the barren fig tree, emphasizing the importance of repentance and bearing spiritual fruit.

Bunyan's writings are characterized by vivid imagery, deep theological insights, and practical applications for Christian living. They have had a lasting impact on Christian literature and continue to be widely read and studied.

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Certainly! Here is a list of the titles and brief descriptions of the contents of the 15 volumes of Thomas Jefferson's writings as edited by the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association:

Volume I

• Autobiography, 1743-1790: Jefferson's own account of his early life, education, and political career up to 1790.

Volume II

• Notes on the State of Virginia: Jefferson's detailed observations and commentary on Virginia's geography, natural resources, and society.

Volume III

• Correspondence, 1760-1774: Letters written by Jefferson during his early political career, including his time in the Virginia House of Burgesses.

Volume IV

• Correspondence, 1775-1782: Letters from the Revolutionary War period, including his time as Governor of Virginia.

Volume V

• Correspondence, 1783-1786: Letters from Jefferson's time as a diplomat in France, discussing European politics and American interests.

Volume VI

• Correspondence, 1787-1792: Letters covering the drafting of the U.S. Constitution and Jefferson's tenure as Secretary of State.

Volume VII

• Correspondence, 1793-1798: Letters from Jefferson's time in political opposition, including his views on the Federalist policies.

Volume VIII

• Correspondence, 1799-1803: Letters from Jefferson's presidency, including discussions on the Louisiana Purchase.

Volume IX

• Correspondence, 1804-1807: Letters from Jefferson's second term as President, focusing on domestic and foreign policy issues.

Volume X

• Correspondence, 1808-1812: Letters from the end of Jefferson's presidency and his retirement, discussing political and personal matters.

Volume XI

• Correspondence, 1813-1815: Letters from Jefferson's retirement, including his correspondence with John Adams.

Volume XII

• Correspondence, 1816-1819: Letters discussing education, the University of Virginia, and political philosophy.

Volume XIII

• Correspondence, 1820-1826: Letters from the final years of Jefferson's life, focusing on his legacy and reflections on his career.

Volume XIV

• Miscellaneous Papers: Various documents, including official reports, addresses, and other writings not included in the correspondence volumes.

Volume XV

• Parliamentary Manual, Official Papers, Messages and Addresses: Jefferson's writings on parliamentary procedure, official government documents, and public addresses.

Volume XVI

• Scientific and Literary Papers: Jefferson's writings on scientific and literary topics, including his interests in natural history and inventions.

Volume XVII

• Legal Papers: Documents related to Jefferson's legal career, including his work as a lawyer and his contributions to legal theory.

Volume XVIII

• Financial Papers: Jefferson's financial records, including his management of personal finances and public funds.

Volume XIX

• Family Letters: Correspondence between Jefferson and his family members, providing insights into his personal life and relationships.

Volume XX

• Miscellaneous Correspondence and Papers: Additional letters and documents that did not fit into the other categories, offering a broader view of Jefferson's life and work.

The 15-volume collection of Francis Bacon's works was edited by James Spedding, Robert Leslie Ellis, and Douglas Denon Heath. Here is a list of the contents of each volume:

1. **Volume I**: Life of Bacon; Preface to the Philosophical Works; *New Organon*

2. **Volume II**: *Preparation for Natural and Experimental History*; *On the Advancement of Learning* (start)

3. **Volume III**: *On the Advancement of Learning* (concluded); *History of the Winds*; *History of Life and Death*

4. **Volume IV**: *History of Density and Rarity*; *Inquiry into the Magnet*; *Topics of Inquiry into Light and Luminance*; *Forest of Materials* (start)

5. **Volume V**: *Forest of Materials* (concluded); *Thoughts on the Nature of Things*; *On the Ebb and Flow of the Sea*; *On Principles and Origins According to the Fables of Cupid and Coelum*; *New Atlantis*; *Great Works of Nature*; *Thoughts on Human Knowledge*

6. **Volume VI**: *Valerius Terminus*; *Advancement of Learning*; *The Thread of the Labyrinth*; *Prologue to the Interpretation of Nature*

7. **Volume VII**: *The Masculine Birth of Time*; *Outline and Argument of the Second Part of the Great Instauration*; *Refutation of Philosophies*; *Thoughts and Conclusions on the Interpretation of Nature*; *Legitimate Inquiry into Motion*; *Heat and Cold*; *History of Sound and Hearing*; *Phenomena of the Universe*; *Description of the Intellectual Globe*; *Theory of the Heaven*; *Sentences on the Interpretation of Nature*; *Aphorisms and Counsels*; *Physiological and Medical Remains*

8. **Volume VIII**: Translations: *The Great Instauration*; *The New Organon*; *Preparative Towards a Natural and Experimental History*; *Of the Dignity and Advancement of Learning*, Books II and III

9. **Volume IX**: Translations: *Of the Dignity and Advancement of Learning*, Books IV-IX; *Natural and Experimental History* (start)

10. **Volume X**: Translations: *Natural and Experimental History* (continued); *Thoughts on the Nature of Things*; *On the Ebb and Flow of the Sea*; *On Principles and Origins, According to the Fables of Cupid and Coelum*; *Description of the Intellectual Globe*; *Theory of the Heaven*

11. **Volume XI**: *History of the Reign of King Henry VII*; *The Beginning of the History of the Reign of King Henry VIII*; *The Beginning of the History of Great Britain*; *In Happy Memory of Elizabeth, Queen of England* (and its translation)

12. **Volume XII**: *In Praise of Henry, Prince of Wales* (and its translation); *The Civil Image of Julius Caesar* (and its translation); *The Civil Image of Augustus Caesar* (and its translation); *Essays or Counsels Civil and Moral*; Appendix to the Essays; *The Wisdom of the Ancients* (start)

13. **Volume XIII**: *The Wisdom of the Ancients* (concluded); *The Wisdom of the Ancients* translated into English; *Advertisement Touching a Holy War*; *Of the True Greatness of Britain*; *Colours of Good and Evil*; *Letter and Discourses to Sir Henry Savill, Touching Helps for the Intellectual Powers*; *Short Notes for Civil Conversation*; *Apophthegms*

14. **Volume XIV**: *Apophthegms* (continued); *Rational Ornaments*; *Short Notes for Civil Conversation*; *A Collection of Sentences*; *Prayers*; *Psalms*; *Translation of Certain Psalms into English Verse*; *Miscellaneous Writings*

15. **Volume XV**: *Miscellaneous Writings* (continued); *Letters and Life of Francis Bacon*; Index to Volumes XI-XV

Willam and Ariel Durant

**Will Durant** was an American historian and philosopher best known for his extensive work on the history of civilisation. His most notable multi-volume work is **"The Story of Civilization,"** which he co-authored with his wife, Ariel Durant. This monumental series covers the history of Eastern and Western civilisations and was published over a span of four decades, from 1935 to 1975. This series is renowned for its comprehensive coverage, engaging narrative style, and the Durants' ability to make history accessible to a broad audience. It remains a significant contribution to historical literature.

1. **Our Oriental Heritage** (1935) - Covers Near Eastern history until the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the history of India, China, and Japan up to the 1930s.

2. **The Life of Greece** (1939) - Focuses on Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic Near East until the Roman conquest.

3. **Caesar and Christ** (1944) - Details the history of Rome and Christianity until the time of Constantine the Great.

4. **The Age of Faith** (1950) - Explores the Middle Ages in Europe and the Near East, from Constantine I to Dante Alighieri.

5. **The Renaissance** (1953) - Examines the history of Italy from around 1300 to the mid-16th century, focusing on the Italian Renaissance.

6. **The Reformation** (1957) - Discusses the history of Europe from the 14th to the 17th century, focusing on the Protestant Reformation.

7. **The Age of Reason Begins** (1961) - Covers the history of Europe from 1558 to 1648, focusing on the early modern period.

8. **The Age of Louis XIV** (1963) - Details the history of Europe from 1648 to 1715, focusing on the reign of Louis XIV of France.

9. **The Age of Voltaire** (1965) - Explores the history of Europe from 1715 to 1756, focusing on the Enlightenment.

10. **Rousseau and Revolution** (1967) - Covers the history of Europe from 1756 to 1789, focusing on the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the French Revolution.

11. **The Age of Napoleon** (1975) - Examines the history of Europe from 1789 to 1815, focusing on the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte.).

By Felipe Gonçalves, Elisa Jácome and Emily Weisburst

How does immigration enforcement affect public safety? Heightened enforcement could reduce crime by deterring and incapacitating immigrant offenders or, alternatively, increase crime by discouraging victims from reporting offenses. The researchers study the U.S. Secure Communities program, which expanded interior enforcement against unauthorized immigrants. Using national survey data, they find that the program reduced the likelihood that Hispanic victims reported crimes to police and increased the victimization of Hispanics. Total reported crimes are unchanged, masking these opposing effects. The researchers provide evidence that reduced Hispanic reporting is the key driver of increased victimization. Their findings underscore the importance of trust in institutions as a central determinant of public safety.

Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, 2024. 95p.

Edited by Michał Balcerzak and Julia Kapelańska-Pręgowska

This is an open access title available under the terms of a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 License. It is free to read, download and share on Elgaronline.com. The open access publication has been financially supported by Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń as part of the research project: “Freedom or Security? Legal and Ethical Dilemmas of New Digital Technologies - the Perspective of International Human Rights Law and Security Policies” (IDUB grant, “Inter disciplinas excellentia”) This book explores how international organizations have addressed the actual and potential human rights issues caused by AI technologies. Combining in-depth theoretical and doctrinal analysis with a pragmatic approach, it addresses vital questions on where accountability and responsibility for AI-related violations of human rights should lie

Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK · Northampton, MA, USA, 2024, 347p.

By Mary Holper

Alleged mandatory immigration detainees are unable to access federal court review of whether they are illegally detained without a bond hearing. The conviction that causes a detainee to be deportable also causes mandatory detention, so that the substantive findings in the deportation litigation path and detention litigation path overlap, even though their consequences differ. In this situation, habeas courts invoke 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(9)— the “zipper clause”—a 1996 statute barring habeas petitions. With § 1252(b)(9), Congress intended to “zip” all claims “arising from any action taken or proceeding brought to remove” a noncitizen into a single circuit court petition for review of a final removal order. But the detention and deportation litigation paths are two sides of an unmatched zipper. One path leads to deportation while the other leads to detention without a bond hearing pending the decision on deportation.

This article exposes a problem that, while under-litigated in immigration detention law, is robbing alleged mandatory detainees of their right to access habeas corpus in order to challenge their illegal detention. As a solution, this article proposes the “Great Writ,” habeas corpus, as a remedy. Because the alleged mandatory detainees do not seek a review of their removal orders, and seek only release from custody, they invoke the “core” of habeas corpus. Although a federal appellate court will ultimately review the substantive legal question that causes both their deportation and detention, that review comes too little, and too late. Thus, it provides no adequate substitute for habeas corpus because there is no meaningful opportunity to demonstrate, to a politically independent adjudicator, that the noncitizen is illegally detained. For these detainees, § 1252(b)(9) has proven to be an ill-fitted zipper that allows illegal executive detention to continue for months and years. If the core of the Suspension Clause is to mean anything, it must guard these detainees’ liberty interests.

Boston College Law School, Boston College Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 634, 2024. 53p.

By Pisarevskaya, Asya and Scholten, Peter

This open access book develops a typology of cities by exploring how current levels of migration-related diversity and segregation relate to three groups of factors: international mobilities, inequalities and political-institutional aspects of local governance. Based on both quantitative and qualitative data from 16 cities in four European countries (France, Germany, The Netherlands, and Italy), the book compares the cities and uses a method of fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis. It demonstrates the shared contingencies of factors among the cities within each type and the crucial differences between the types of localities, and offers a more differentiated, holistic understanding of migration-related diversity configurations through the five conceptualised types: (1) Superdiverse cities, (2) Postindustrial diverse cities. (3) Middle class diverse cities, (4) Divided cities, and (5) Marginal migration cities. As such, the book is a valuable read to all those who would like to learn more about urban migration-related diversity and how it is formed and governed.

Cham: Springer Nature, 2025, 225p.

Edited by Jakub Bijak

This is an open access title available under the terms of a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 License. It is free to read, download and share on Elgaronline.com. This unique book provides a practical and interdisciplinary blueprint for determining quantitative scenarios of future international migration. Focusing on complexity and uncertainty as the defining challenges of migration, it explores how scenario building can be used to inform and underpin effective migration policy and practice.

Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK • Northampton, MA, USA, 2024, 185p.

By Christopher L. Foote

The US unemployment rate has drifted higher since early 2023, even though growth in payroll employment has been strong over this period. Some commentators have noted that the puzzle of rising unemployment amid rapid hiring can be explained by a large increase in immigration, which would raise population growth and allow firms to hire large numbers of new (immigrant) workers without dipping into the unemployment pool. This paper uses a source of administrative data that is directly related to the labor market—immigrant applications for work permits—to estimate the immigrant labor inflow in 2023 and 2024. The surge in new work permit applications in these two years supports the large immigration estimates based on other administrative data from the Department of Homeland Security, including the significant immigration increase recently estimated by the Congressional Budget Office.

Boston: Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, 2024. 27p.

Edited by Fia Cottrell-Sundevall · Ragnheiður Kristjánsdóttir

This open access book examines disenfranchisement and voting barriers in ten self-governing and aspiring liberal democracies worldwide, before and after the introduction of so-called universal suffrage. Focusing on economic voting restrictions implemented through constitutional provisions and laws, it explores the various disqualifications that prevent people from voting. The notions of economic independence underpinning these restrictions have built and reinforced societal structures and power relations, particularly concerning class, gender, race, civil status, age, and education. Historically, voting rights have been celebrated as a symbol of inclusivity and equal citizenship. Yet, as contributors in this collection highlight, recent centennial celebrations of universal suffrage often depict it as a distinct milestone, overshadowing the voting restrictions that persisted post women’s suffrage. As democracy now faces new, concerted challenges, there is a compelling reason to revisit and question the narrative of the progression of democratic ideals.

Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024. 286p.

By Melanie Gower

There is a long history of cooperation between the UK and France over immigration controls at their shared borders. This has been formalised through a series of bilateral agreements, including the Sangatte Protocol (1991) and the Treaty of Le Touquet (2003). The latter allowed for France and the UK to carry out immigration controls in each other’s territories at seaports. The Sandhurst Treaty (2018) provided a legal framework for broader cooperation on border and migration issues. Early agreements addressed security around the Channel Tunnel and ferry terminals and preventing people crossing the border by hiding in vehicles. Since 2019 cooperation has focused on small boat crossings. Small boats have been the predominant recorded method of irregular arrival in the UK since 2020. The Home Office says 82 organised criminal gangs responsible for people smuggling by small boats have been “dismantled” since a Joint Intelligence Cell with France was established in July 2020. UK funding commitments Many border control agreements since 2014 have had associated funding commitments. The UK will provide €541 million (around £476 million at the time of the agreement) between 2023/24 and 2025/26, under a three-year deal made in March 2023. France is due to make an unspecified “substantial and continuing” contribution. How is the effectiveness of UK spending assessed? There is limited official information published about how the funding attached to successive agreements is spent and monitored. The government says France and the UK jointly assess the impact of cooperation and funding through regular strategic reviews. The government doesn’t publish details of review outcomes. It says doing so could undermine border security controls and the UK-France relationship.

Recent statistics The UK–France Joint Leaders’ Declaration issued in March 2023 included an agreement to increase the interception rate of boats crossing the English Channel and to “drastically reduce the number of crossings year on year”. Fewer people and boats were detected arriving in the UK in 2023 compared with 2022. The number of people intercepted and returned to France was also lower. • 36% fewer people were detected arriving by small boats in 2023 than in 2022. The Home Office says this is largely explained by a 93% reduction in Albanian nationals arriving by small boats 2023, which it attributes to recent partnership work between the UK and Albania. Arrivals of other nationalities reduced by 14% overall. • 46% fewer boats were detected arriving in the UK without permission in 2023 than in 2022, although the average number of people in each boat increased from 41 to 49. • France prevented fewer crossing attempts in 2023 than in 2022. The Home Office says this reflects the decline in the overall number of crossing attempts in 2023. Data for the first nine months of 2024 shows the number of people arriving in small boats (25,244) was slightly more than for the same period in 2023 (24,830). This is despite fewer boats (479) arriving in the first nine months of 2024 than over the same period in 2023 (506). More recent provisional data shows significantly more people and boats arrived in October and November 2024 compared to in 2023. The Home Office has cited weather conditions as a relevant factor. Topical issues Some stakeholders, including Border Force unions, some MPs, and migrants’ rights advocates, have criticised agreements between the UK and France for falling short of what they think is needed to address unauthorised border crossings. Their alternative suggestions have included powers for French law enforcement to arrest and detain intercepted migrants; powers for UK counterparts in France; and enhanced safe and legal routes for asylum seekers wishing to come to the UK. There have been reports of French police intervening more to prevent small boat departures since the 2023 UK-France funding agreement. Some commentators have linked the increased funding with an increase in migrant fatalities in 2024. Recent UK governments have wanted formal agreements with European states to return unauthorised migrants who travel to the UK. So far, the Labour government has prioritised practical cooperation with neighbouring countries over pursuing a formal returns agreement with the EU.

London: UK House of Commons Library, 2024. 31p.

By CJ McKinney, Melanie Gower

The UK has agreements with some countries for the return of people lacking legal residence. These agreements take various forms and are not usually published.

The attached briefing lists known agreements and links to the text where available. The government has confirmed the existence of some form of agreement with 24 countries since 2021, some recent and some struck up to 20 years ago:

In 2021, the government confirmed that it has formal returns agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, China, Djibouti, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Iraq, Kuwait, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Korea, South Sudan, Switzerland and Vietnam. That accounts for 16 countries, excluding the deal with Afghanistan because it has been inoperable in practice since regime change later in 2021.

Since 2021, the government has signed formal returns agreements with Albania, Georgia, Serbia, Moldova and Pakistan. These five replaced European Union agreements with those countries in which the UK took part while an EU member.

In 2021, the UK and India agreed a migration and mobility partnership that included provisions on returns.

In 2024, the UK and Bangladesh announced an informal returns agreement described as standard operating procedures.

In 2020, the UK and Ireland set up an informal returns agreement covering asylum seekers (rather than British or Irish citizens), described as non-legally binding operational arrangements.

There may well be other informal or even formal agreements, the existence of which has not been disclosed. The arrangement with Ireland was not announced at the time and only came to public attention in 2024.

Agreements made in the form of a treaty are published and laid before Parliament, but the government is not required to publish a memorandum of understanding or operational protocol. It has refused, for example, to disclose the contents of the 2022 Pakistan agreement.

London: UK House of Commons Library, 2024. 10p.