By Marly van Bruchem, Laura Hendriks, Hans Myhre Sunde, Don Weenink, Lasse Suonperä Liebst & Marie Rosenkrantz Lindegaard

The causes of riots have been extensively researched. Comparatively, little is known about how they are prevented from occurring. We address this gap with a qualitative study of the role of formal and informal guardians in Amsterdam in January 2021, when public disorder was widespread across the Netherlands after the government had announced a curfew to curb the spread of the Covid−19 virus. We used CCTV footage of two gatherings that had elements of disorder and two that occurred without them. We also rely on interviews with 40 so-called “intimate handlers” who were present during these gatherings to understand how they managed them. We find that the presence and actions of intimate handlers collaborating with the police during the gatherings, effectuated through frequent affiliative contacts with the crowd, had direct de-escalatory effects, operative because of their well-developed social community bonds: participants in gatherings avoided jeopardizing these bonds of attachment, which also created a more positive image of the police through citizen-police collaborations. Our findings thus stress the importance of social bonds for the effectiveness of riot prevention and we consider practical implications for public disorder and large-scale crowd management.

Deviant Behavior, Volume 44, 2023 - Issue 11

By Hina Kalyal  Swaleha Naqvi, PhD Volunteer Researcher Nadia Asjad

The impetus behind this report was the death of George Floyd at the hands of a police officer in the United States, triggering global protests against police use of force. In response to the public reaction, many police organizations across North America are now reflecting on their treatment of people of color and devising measures to improve the relationship. The London Police Service is one of the first few police organizations in Canada that have voluntarily undertaken a research project on systemic racism to better serve the culturally and ethnically diverse community of London, Ontario. The specific objectives of the project were: To identify whether service gaps/differences exist during police interactions with White versus the Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) community members of London, Ontario. To determine whether any systemic barriers exist within the LPS that might impact the professional growth and development of BIPOC members; and to conduct an Employment Systems Review to determine whether the current policies  Context of the Report The impetus behind this report was the death of George Floyd at the hands of a police officer in the United States, triggering global protests against police use of force. In response to the public reaction, many police organizations across North America are now reflecting on their treatment of people of color and devising measures to improve the relationship. The London Police Service is one of the first few police organizations in Canada that have voluntarily undertaken a research project on systemic racism to better serve the culturally and ethnically diverse community of London, Ontario. Research Objectives The specific objectives of the project were: To identify whether service gaps/differences exist during police interactions with White versus the Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) community members of London, Ontario. To determine whether any systemic barriers exist within the LPS that might impact the professional growth and development of BIPOC members; and To conduct an Employment Systems Review to determine whether the current policies and procedures followed by the LPS are equitable and fair to all members of the LPS. Research Design The project was divided into three phases. In Phase I, public opinion was sought regarding their interactions with the members of the LPS through in-depth interviews with the BIPOC members of the community, followed by an online survey. In Phase II, interviews were conducted with BIPOC members of the LPS regarding their views about the organizational culture. The interviews were followed by an online survey administered to all members of the LPS. In phase III of the project, an Employment Systems Review (ESR) of LPS human resources policies and procedures was conducted to identify any barriers that may be impeding the progress of BIPOC members in their careers within the organization. Phase I Findings The analysis of interviews conducted with the BIPOC community members during the first phase of the project yielded themes that indicated that police officers were generally impolite and dismissive, relied on stereotypes while interacting with the BIPOC community, and occasionally used excessive force. The survey results highlighted similar themes. However, there was a significant difference of opinion between the BIPOC and White community members regarding the officers of the LPS with the BIPOC respondents showing a higher level of dissatisfaction compared to the White respondents. Phase II Findings The analysis of interviews with BIPOC members of the LPS revealed dissatisfaction with certain elements of the organization’s culture such as the bonding between White members which excluded others and the use of culturally inappropriate language. The BIPOC members also believed that they are discriminated against when it comes to career development and growth opportunities. The results of the survey, which included all members of the LPS, were interesting as the White members claimed that they were the ones being discriminated against, to accommodate diverse and women members. The White members (men) claimed that the organization was relaxing the recruitment and promotion criteria to facilitate the BIPOC members and women, at the cost of organizational effectiveness and the quality of service- delivery by the LPS. Phase III Findings The third phase of the project included an Employment Systems Review (ESR) to assess the Human Resource policies and procedures in order to determine whether any of these documents were creating barriers to the growth and development of diverse members within the organization. While the policies and procedures reviewed were consistent with the principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion outlined by the government, some minor observations were made where LPS could improve its process to enhance employee satisfaction. Summary of Recommendations Based on the findings of the three phases, the recommendations are summarized as follows: LPS should focus on developing training programs for all employees focusing on developing cultural competence and cultural humility, and organizational policies and procedures must reflect these efforts. Resources should be allocated towards community outreach programs to improve public-police relationships and enhance mutually beneficial partnerships. The recommendations of the employee interviews, employee surveys, and the ESR mainly focus on enhancing transparency in the recruitment, selection, employee development, and promotional processes within the LPS. We recommend the introduction of a Human Resource Information System (HRIS) which would streamline the aforementioned processes and enhance employee satisfaction, productivity, and retention.    

London: The Project, 2024. 120p.

 By Julie A. Ward,  Javier A. Cepeda, Dylan B. Jackson, Cassandra K. Crifasi

Much research on shootings by police has focused on urban jurisdictions, but most U.S. law enforcement agencies are not located in cities. Prior research suggests that rates of fatal shootings by police are comparable between urban and non-urban areas. Yet, shooting characteris tics across the urban−rural continuum are unknown. This study describes and compares fatal and nonfatal injurious shootings by officers in U.S. urban, suburban, and rural areas from 2015 to 2020. Methods: Characteristics of fatal and nonfatal injurious shootings by police were abstracted from Gun Violence Archive. In 2023−2024, using ZIP-code and county-based rurality designations, the national distribution, incidence, and characteristics of injurious shootings by police were compared across urban, suburban, and rural areas of the U.S. Results: Rates of injurious shootings in rural areas approached or exceeded those of urban rates. As rurality increased, proportionately more injurious shootings involved single responders, sheriffs, or multiple agency types. Across the urban−rural continuum, characteristics of precipitating incidents were similar. Injurious shootings were most frequently preceded by domestic violence incidents, traffic stops, or shots-fired reports; co-occurring behavioral health needs were common. After accounting for local demographic differences, Black, indigenous, and Hispanic residents were injured at higher rates than White residents in all examined areas. Conclusions: Shootings by police represent an overlooked and inequitable source of injury in rural areas. Broadly similar incident characteristics suggest potential for wide-reaching reforms. To prevent injuries, crisis prevention, dispatch, and response systems must assure proportionate rural area coverage. In addition, legislative prevention and accountability measures should include sheriffs' offices for optimal rural-area impact. 

AmJPrev Med 2024;000(000):1−9. © 2024

 By Christopher Lewis and Adaner Usmani

Since 2014, viral images of Black people being killed at the hands of the police—Michael Brown, Eric Garner, Breonna Taylor, and many, many others—have convinced much of the public that the American criminal legal system is broken. In the summer of 2020, nationwide protests against police racism and violence in the wake of George Floyd’s murder were, according to some analysts, the largest social movement in the history of the United States. 2 Activists and academics have demanded defunding the police and reallocating the funds to substitutes or alternatives. 3 And others have called for abolishing the police altogether.4 It has become common knowledge that the police do not solve serious crimes, they focus far too much on petty offenses, and they are far too heavy-handed and brutal in their treatment of Americans—especially, Black people. This is the so-called paradox ofunder-protection and over-policing that has characterized American law enforcement since emancipation.5 The American criminal legal system is unjust and inefficient. But, as we argue in this essay, over-policing is not the problem. In fact, the American criminal legal system is characterized by an exceptional kind of under-policing, and a heavy reliance on long prison sentences, compared to other developed nations. In this country, roughly three people are incarcerated per police officer employed. The rest of the developed world strikes a diametrically opposite balance between these twin arms of the penal state, employing roughly three and a half times more police officers than the number of people they incarcerate. We argue that the United States has it backward. Justice and efficiency demand that we strike a balance between policing and incarceration more like that of the rest of the developed world. We call this the “First World Balance.” Wedefendthis idea in much more detail in a forthcoming book titled What’sWrongwith Mass Incarceration. This essay offers a preliminary sketch of some of the arguments in the book. In the spirit of conversation and debate, in this essay, we err deliberately on the side of comprehensiveness rather than argumentative rigor. One of us is a social scientist, and the other is a philosopher and legal scholar. Our primary goal for this research project, and especially in this essay, is not to convince readers that we are correct—but rather to encourage a more explicit discussion of the empirical and normative bases of some pressing debates about the American criminal legal system. Even if our answers prove unsound, we hope that the combination of empirical social science and analytic moral and political philosophy we might have to look like to be sound. In fact, because much of this essay (and the underlying book project) strikes a pessimistic tone, we would be quite happy to be wrong about much of what we argue here.

American Journal of Law and Equality vol. 2, 2022.