By Roger Ngoufo; Hubert Tsague D.; Matthias Waltert

In the African rainforest zone, wildlife can provide up to 70 % of animal protein to the population and is used for various cultural reasons (e.g. tastes, food habits, rituals and prestige). Cameroonians have become famous for their attachment to the consumption of game meat. Moreover, the availability of wildlife maintains a variety of public services, forming the basis of substantial numbers of public and informal jobs in the branches of transport and trade. But this natural and cultural heritage is severely threatened by the intensification of illegal activities, including the destruction of habitats and poaching. This book questions the current legal framework of wildlife resources management in Cameroon, asks whether the country’s legislation could be improved towards a sustainable exploitation of wildlife resources and makes concrete suggestions for a possible reform.

Göttingen: University of Gottingen, 2014. 110p.

By Rebecca Wing Yee Wong

The thesis is a study of how Chinese illegal tiger parts trading networks are organized. In particular, this thesis tests in a qualitative manner the causal relationship between three independent variables and the network organizations of these markets. The three independent variables are “ethnicity”, “level of enforcement” and “proximity to the source country”. The thesis also discusses the dynamics of the illegal transactions of tiger parts products. Legitimate meditators or dispute resolutions mechanisms are lacking in the underworld so the risks, which the parties undertake during trading, are far higher. This thesis explores how illegal transactions are enforced, carried out and honored in this trade. In order to map the organization of the tiger trade, I conducted fieldwork in three trading hubs across China: Lhasa. Kunming and Xining.

I discovered five tiger parts trading networks, three of which specialized in the trading of tiger skins and two in tiger bones. Within these networks, the level of perceived but not the actual level of risk influences the decisions of the actors in the network. Entry into the network is easy when the perceived level of enforcement is low. In these settings, there is no ethnic restriction for entering the network; the supplier is willing to trade with anyone with a trustworthy reputation. On the other hand, accessibility to the network is strictly controlled when actors perceive a high level of enforcement in their operating environment. Under this setting, the organization of the network becomes more exclusive and ethnically homogenous, as shown in the Tibetan tiger skin-trading network in Lhasa and the tiger bone-trading network in Kunming. The proximity of the tiger source country to the re-distribution sites (fieldwork cities) also influences the organization of the networks. When the level of enforcement is low and the tiger source country is far away from the re-distribution sites, a monetary deposit is required in order to show that the buyer is serious about his/her request, as shown by the tiger skin-trading network in Kunming.

Oxford, UK: St Hilda’s College, University of Oxford . 2013. 280p.

By Arias Goetschel

The Illegal Trade in Wildlife (IWT) is one of the most cumbersome threats currently facing biodiversity, with broad implications for the health and wellbeing of humans and nature. Over the past decade, reports of international illegal trade in jaguars (Panthera onca), with links to demand from Asian wildlife markets, have emerged throughout Latin America, raising the profile of jaguars as the emblem of Latin America’s fight against IWT. This DPhil is among the first to explore the characteristics, prevalence, and drivers of this threat to jaguars, with the goal of providing scientific evidence in support of ongoing and future projects and policies aimed at addressing it. Data collection efforts centred in Mesoamerica and Bolivia, two areas with varying degrees of evidence of international trade, and were based on interviews with enforcement agents and conservation practitioners, and questionnaire surveys with rural communities coexisting with jaguars. In both study areas, the illegal jaguar trade was found to be a prevalent, domestically-focused, and opportunistic activity, driven largely by the confluence of cultural traditions surrounding wildlife uses, forest-dependent livelihoods, and negative perceptions and interactions with jaguars, manifested through human-jaguar conflict. To a lesser degree, the trade was also influenced by a more diverse set of external actors and drivers than originally expected, including tourists of diverse backgrounds, regional immigrants, and traders of Asian-decent. Enabling factors ranged from critical limitations in the enforcement capacity of wildlife authorities, to a high social acceptability of jaguar killing in rural communities. Additionally, the DPhil highlighted biases in how those in charge of addressing the illegal trade in jaguars perceive and use evidence on the trade, with a tendency to disregard its reliability and conservation relevance. To address this issue, the DPhil provides guidelines towards a more objective decision-making on the illegal wildlife trade, and reinforces the need for evidence-based, multifaceted, counter-trafficking approaches that consider the complex interacting domestic and international, cultural and commercial drivers behind the illegal trade in jaguars.

Oxford, UK: St. Cross College, University of Oxford, 2021. 244p.

By Tanya Wyatt

The illegal wildlife trade is a prevalent crime that has not been explored by criminologists, who could contribute to the exploration of its impacts and its perpetration and thus recommend ways to reduce it. Traditional criminology has been legally positivistic, which ignores environmental structural harms that remain within the norm of the legal sphere. The emerging field of green criminology, keeping with the critical tradition in criminology, considers harms, but this is applied in an anthropocentric or speciesist manner. Using two case studies of wildlife trafficking in Russia Far East (fur and falcon), this research seeks to expand these limited concepts. This enhancement is accomplished through the development of a new perspective called deep green criminology that can be applied to other green crimes as well. With this ecocentric stance that recognizes the intrinsic value of all species and their right to humane treatment and a life free from suffering, other beings and the harms against them and the environment become visible as subjects of criminological inquiry. In this research this means exploration not only of activities defined as crimes (iIlegal trade of endangered species), not only of environmental harms which affect humans and certain species singled out by humans (poaching and capturing of charismatic fauna), but also includes harms that fall outside of these distinctions (inhumane trapping/capturing and treatment whether legally or illegally obtained, and the associated use of animals for clothing and sport). Additionally, this paper presents the three structural harms that are problematic in regards to wildlife trafficking; the danger to the environment; the cruelty to animals; and the threat to national and human security through the connection to corruption, transnational crime, organized criminal networks, and terrorism. By exploring who is involved, how it occurs. and where it takes place for each of these trades, typologies are created that provide a basis for further examination of the trade in illegal wildlife. Solutions are offered to improve the policies and enforcement that affect the illegal wildlife trade, as are recommendations for addressing the economics of supply and consumer demand for illegal wildlife and wildlife products. The conclusions that· result from this thesis tempered the proposed deep green criminological perspective to a more pragmatic approach.

Canterbury, UK: University of Kent, 2008. 203p.

By Dorothea Delpech

Wildlife crime is receiving increasing international media coverage, with much of the focus on the international Wildlife Trade (IWT) and iconic species (e.g. elephants, tigers and pangolins). Limited research exists on the impact of wildlife crime on native species in the UK. The majority of the UK landscape is categorised as rural and classified as Farmland. To account for the spatial overlap between Livestock and Wildlife, the thesis aimed to assess the incidence of these crime types on farmland in the UK. The thesis presents a multimethod analysis of livestock and wildlife crimes, beginning with a review of the existing research on the most effective prevention methods for crimes against terrestrial (land based) species (TS), which identified an overall dearth of empirical evidence. A victimization survey was then conducted of farmers in the UK. The survey received over 800 responses. Amongst the many survey findings, was the low level of reporting, with over 70% of wildlife crime incidents going unreported to the Police. The survey responses also identified an inverse relationship in the seasonal variation of these crime types. Finally, the thesis assessed Police data for Livestock and Wildlife crimes, between 2010 and 2015 from Dorset constabulary. The Police data was used to assess the seasonal variation in these crime types and identified the need to disaggregate the Police data into crimes involving different species to identify annual trends. Data quality issues associated with the recording of crimes in rural areas were identified and potential solutions for better location recording described. The thesis provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of Livestock and Wildlife crime in the UK, as well as highlighting the numerous avenues for further research.

London: University College London, 2020. 386p.

By Angus Nurse

This research considers the enforcement of wildlife legislation in the UK. It examines the extent of wildlife crime, the role of Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in helping to shape the public policy and police response to wildlife crime and the current position of UK wildlife legislation. A variety of animal and wildlife protection legislation is on the statute books but crimes such as egg collecting, bird of prey persecution, the illegal trade in wildlife and the illegal killing and trapping of animals such as badgers for sport continue. NGOs through their campaign and policy documents argue that the enforcement regime should be strengthened and tougher sentences handed out to wildlife offenders. The research assesses these policy perspectives and the rationale behind them to determine how effective existing policies on wildlife crime are, given what is known about crime, punishment and justice in mainstream criminology. The research questions are addressed through document research and semi-structured interviews. Use is made of published figures and policy perspectives on wildlife crime as well as previous research on wildlife and environmental law enforcement. However, previous research considers either problems affecting individual species (e.g. badgers, or birds) or specific types of offence such as the illegal trade in wildlife or bird of prey persecution. This research considers UK wildlife in its entirety across all different types of offence. The research concludes that while the perception might be that wildlife laws are inadequate and a more punitive regime is required, it is in the enforcement of the legislation that problems occur rather than in any inherent weakness in the legislative regime. The research concludes that changes to legislation and a more punitive regime are unlikely to have a substantial effect on wildlife crime levels unless attention is also paid problems with the existing enforcement regime. The research makes recommendations for future criminal justice policy on wildlife crime.

Birmingham, UK: Birmingham City University, 2008. 296p.

By Michael Dawes

This thesis analyses the economics of rhino and elephant conservation in light of the recent upsurge in poaching in Africa. Each chapter focuses on a particular component of the new poaching crisis. Chapter One examines the development of market power by poachers and the implications for how owners should use patrols to defend their rhino. A dynamic model is developed and simulated. The owner is the Stackelberg leader, investing in anti-poaching patrols to protect rhino from poaching cartels who strategically compete in a closed-loop Nash Equilibrium ‘game’. Understanding the industrial organisation of cartels is shown to be of paramount importance in designing optimal anti-poaching policy because, perversely, patrol spending works to increase strategic behaviour between cartels. Chapter Two considers whether establishing a legalised trade in rhino horn could benefit conservation. A dynamic model is formulated and simulated. It is found that, even if the institutional arrangements are robust enough to support legalised trade, the economics suggest trade is not guaranteed to improve the conservation prospects of the species. In the absence of private sector speculation, a legalised trade could be used to sustainably conserve a rhino population when extinction would otherwise occur. However, with the introduction of speculation, speculative attack on the remaining stockpile is highly profitable, leading to extinction of the species. Chapter Three determines the consequences of increasingly fragmented conservation policy. A new panel of elephant census data for 1,262 reserves across 37 countries in Africa is used to examine the effect of varying anti-poaching policy across borders. An international border is found to result in an elephant population up to 2.5 times smaller than a reserve without a border. In addition, evidence that poachers arbitrage across reserves is found. The policy consequence is clear: as populations become increasingly fragmented, transfrontier conservation policy becomes more important.

Oxford, UK: St Hugh’s College, University of Oxford, 2018. 186p.

By Lucy Vigne

In much of tropical Africa a breakdown in law and order, corruption and an influx of firearms led to heavy rhino and elephant poaching, especially in the 1970s and 1980s. I collected and analysed data to reveal the collapsing numbers of rhinos in Africa. Although we had general trade information, we needed more understanding of the soaring smuggling and consumption in order to combat it. I carried out extensive fieldwork in the main market at the time: North Yemen (Yemen from 1990). From the 1980s I regularly monitored the trade in rhino horn used for prestigious curved dagger (jambiya) handles, updating information on smuggling routes, prices, and demand. I worked with Yemenis on education campaigns, encouraged substitutes, and assisted policy makers, with Esmond Martin, who was to become my longterm research colleague. In the Indian subcontinent, home to most Asian rhinos, we also worked with officials and local people on strategies to fight rhino poaching and smuggling. And in eastern Asia we surveyed consumer markets for rhino horn used in traditional Oriental medicine to close down illegal trade. Around 2010 demand escalated once again causing serious rhino poaching, this time mainly in South Africa for customers in China and Vietnam, but again information was lacking. I surveyed illegal markets and collected prices of rhino horn, in order to strengthen legislation and enforcement. Demand for elephant ivory also rocketed from about 2010 onwards and we learned newly moneyed undiscerning Chinese consumers were eager to acquire mass-produced ivory items. We carried out market surveys in key illegal African and Asian markets to alert decision makers to control the surge in trafficking and unregulated retail sales, mostly for mainland Chinese. A new Chinese diaspora and the internet encouraged this lucrative trade, fuelled by corruption, mismanagement and apathy in many regions. Human population pressure on valuable natural resources is rising, resulting in climate change and wildlife crime increasing, and biodiversity in wild habitats more threatened, plus spreading zoonotic diseases. Compared with the 1980s there is at last growing attention to these challenges, including wildlife crime, in search of securing nature for a healthier, safer planet.

Oxford, UK: Oxford Brookes University. 2020. 80p.

By Tomomi Kitade and Ayako Toko

Japan was formerly recognized as one of the world’s largest end-use markets for wildlife products, particularly during the height of the national economic boom which lasted throughout the mid-1970s and 1980s. Wildlife products traded to Japan at the time were extensive and wide-ranging, and included everything from animal fur and leather for fashion, exotic animals for pets and zoos, to taxidermy specimens, raw materials for traditional medicine and other traditional manufacturing industries. Rhino horn and elephant ivory, arguably the two symbols of the current illegal wildlife trade crisis, were also traded to Japan in massive quantities until 1980 and 1989, respectively, when international trade bans were introduced pursuant to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). For a time Japan ranked as the world’s largest consumer of both rhino horn and elephant ivory, but the market for these products declined significantly over the years, to a point where only a small fraction of the former domestic market remains significant today. This research sheds light on Japan’s wildlife trade history as a case study on the contributing factors that helped reduce the market for rhino horn and elephant ivory. By conducting comprehensive research into these phenomena, this report aims to elucidate the circumstances and drivers for change, in the hope that it may provide useful understanding for the contemporary context in other Asian markets facing problems with wildlife trade. Additionally, this study critically reviewed the status of the current domestic market and regulations to amplify where Japan stands today in terms of the historical and global context and provides recommendations for addressing current issues in Japan, especially in light of severe contemporary global levels of illegal wildlife trade. Because of the holistic approach taken and the historical knowledge required for this study, information was collected and analysed from a wide range of sources. In terms of literature, sources in the Japanese language were especially utilized, including the database of National Diet records and national newspaper archives. Various data relating to trade, production, and socio-economic status, as well as records associated with regulatory schemes, were obtained from many sources including the Japanese government, domestic industry associations, and CITES-related databases (i.e. the CITES Trade Database and the Elephant Trade Information System). Furthermore, critical insights were gathered through a series of stakeholder/expert interviews, especially with industry members who were directly part of the process. Finally, an original consumer survey was conducted in 2014 to gain further understanding of consumer perspectives.

Tokyo: TRAFFIC Japan, 2016. 96p.

Edited by C.D. Spinellis / Nikolaos Theodorakis Emmanouil Billis / George Papadimitrakopoulos.

Volume Ii: Essays In English, German, French, And Italian. Nestor Courakis is Emeritus Professor of Criminology and Penology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Faculty of Law and a full-time Professor at the University of Nicosia.

Athens: ANT. N. Sakkoulas Publishers L.P , 2017. 1899p.

Edited by Carol Hagemann-White, Liz Kelly, Thomas Meysen

This book offers insights and perspectives from a study of “Cultural Encounters in Intervention Against Violence” (CEINAV) in four EU-countries. Seeking a deeper understanding of the underpinnings of intervention practices in Germany, Portugal, Slovenia and the United Kingdom, the team explored variations in institutional structures and traditions of law, policing, and social welfare. Theories of structural inequality and ethics are discussed and translated into practice

Leverkusen-Opladen: Verlag Barbara Budrich, 2019. 282p.

By Florian Weigand

Exploring the links between armed conflict and transnational crime, Florian Weigand builds on in-depth empirical research into some of Southeast Asia’s murkiest borders. The disparate voices of drug traffickers, rebel fighters, government officials and victims of armed conflict are heard in Conflict and Transnational Crime, exploring perspectives that have been previously disregarded in understanding the field.

Cheltenham, UK; Northampton MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020. 176p

Edited by Gjalt de Graaf , Patrick von Maravić. and Pieter Wagenaar

Money makes the world go round - corruption The book presents the state of the art in studying the causes of corruption from a comparative perspective. Leading scholars in the field of corruption analysis shed light on the issue of corruption from different theoretical perspectives. Understanding how different theories define, conceptualize, and eventually deduce policy recommendations will amplify our understanding of the complexity of this social phenomenon and illustrate the spectrum of possibilities to deal with it analytically as well as practically.

Opladen & Farmington Hills, MI. Barbara Budrich Publishers. 2010. 207p.

By Nigel Davidson

In 2017 it will be Australia’s turn to chair the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KP), an international organisation set up to regulate the trade in diamonds. Diamonds are a symbol of love, purchased to celebrate marriage, and it is therefore deeply ironic that the diamond trade has become linked with warfare and human rights violations committed in African producer countries such as Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo and, more recently, Zimbabwe and Angola. In their quest for diamonds, or by using diamonds to purchase weapons, armed groups in these countries have engaged in recruiting child soldiers, amputating limbs, and committing rape and murder. In response to the problem, the international community, non-governmental organisations and key industry players such as De Beers combined forces to create the Kimberley Process in 2002. The KP uses an export certificate system to distinguish the legitimate rough diamond trade from so-called ‘blood diamonds’, which are also known as ‘conflict diamonds’. This book considers the extent to which the KP, supported by other agencies at the international and national levels, has been effective in achieving its mandate. In so doing, it presents an original model derived from the domain of regulatory theory, the Dual Networked Pyramid, as a means of describing the operation of the system and suggesting possible improvements that might be made to it. Nigel Davidson spoke with 936 ABC Hobart about what Australia can do to help stop blood diamonds.

Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2016. 330p.

By Elleman, Bruce A. and Paine, S.C.M

The sixteen case studies in this book reflect the extraordinary diversity of experience of navies attempting to carry out, and also to eliminate, commerce raiding. Because the cases emphasize conflicts in which commerce raiding had major repercussions, they shed light on when, how, and in what manner it is most likely to be effective. The authors have been asked to examine the international context, the belligerents, the distribution of costs and benefits, the logistical requirements, enemy countermeasures, and the operational and strategic effectiveness of these campaigns.

Newport, RI: U.S. Naval War College Press, 2010. 277p.

By Daniel Mejía

No one can deny that Colombia has worked tirelessly to fight illegal drug production, trafficking, and organized crime groups linked to these activities. Since 1994, more than two million hectares of coca have been sprayed with glyphosate, 1,890 metric tons of cocaine have been seized, and 28,344 coca leaf processing laboratories have been destroyed. The costs that Colombia has paid in this “war” are very high. Since 2000, the country—with partial funding from the U.S. government—has invested more than US$1.2 billion, or about 1 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP), per year into the military component of Plan Colombia.1 However, the costs have not solely been public financial resources. More than 57,000 Colombians are estimated to have been killed between 1994 and 2008 as a consequence of growing illegal drug markets and resulting confrontations between drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and the Colombian government during the war on drugs.2 This translates into approximately 3,800 additional homicides (or about 25 percent of total homicides) per year from drug-related violence alone. Yet despite such enormous investments and costs, Colombia continues to be a key producer and trafficker of illicit drugs, and in particular of cocaine.

Washington DC: Brookings Institute, 2016. 17p.

By John Alexander

In this monograph, Dr. Alexander sets the stage with a brief historical account of how maritime piracy has evolved over the centuries to its current state: a vast enterprise whose increasing profitability has attracted a confluence of nefarious actors including warlords and international criminal organizations. Dr. Alexander speculates on the potential for intersection between pirates and ideological terrorist movements such as al-Qaeda and Associated Movements. Such a future would significantly elevate the stakes in a U.S. whole-of-government counter-piracy response. What role should the U.S. military, and Special Operations Forces (SOF) in particular, play in addressing the global issue of maritime piracy? Dr. Alexander points out many of the thorny legal considerations that contextually color any efforts to address counter-piracy and notes that the best solution to criminal acts occurring hundreds of miles at sea may in fact lie with efforts, including the use of SOF, to improve the security apparatus on shore.

MacDill Air Force Base, Florida: Joint Special Operations University Press. 2013. 102p

Edited by William Mendel and Peter McCabe

In April 2015, military and civilian personnel from Canada, Mexico, and the United States came together at Colorado Springs, Colorado, for a symposium hosted by U.S. Special Operations Command-North and facilitated by Joint Special Operations University and Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. Their task was to examine the role of Special Operations Forces (SOF) in combating transnational organized crime (TOC). The panelists and plenary participants set to work considering a wide range of issues attending to the TOC threat. After the Symposium concluded, panelists and speakers synthesized the results of their research and panel discussions in articles for publication—those articles are found in the chapters of this report of proceedings. The implication for SOF is they must continue to train to meet the strategic challenges ahead. This will require forward-deployed units that are engaged with their counterparts in host countries because TOC is both a threat to, and a result of, weak, emerging democratic governments that benefit from engagement. Readiness to conduct all SOF core activities will remain a priority.

MacDill AFB, FL: Joint Special Operations University Press, 2016. 204p.

By Elleman, Bruce A.; Forbes, Andrew; and Rosenberg, David

As modern nation-states emerged from feudalism, privateering for both profit and war supplemented piracy at the margins of national sovereignty. More recently, an ocean enclosure movement under the aegis of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 has granted states access to maritime resources far beyond their territorial limits.

Newport, RI: U.S. Naval War College Press, 2010. 277p.

By Rodriguez, M., M. Pascual, J. Wingard, N. Bhatri, A. Rydannykh, A. Russo, J. Janicki

Sharing up to 98% of human DNA, great apes are our closest relatives on earth. Human activities, however, pose serious challenges to their survival and threaten them with extinction. Expansion of the agricultural frontier into tropical forests, and poaching, driven by lucrative illegal markets for pets and bush meat, are the main forces cited for their population declines.1 Meanwhile, in some parts of the world, people are eager to have baby chimps at home; others attend great ape ‘boxing matches’; while others are looking for that ‘Instagram-able’ moment with a captive great ape. Regardless of the kinds of demand for great apes, we are losing thousands to illegal trade in these species every year. The exact number is unknown due to the illegal nature of the trade, but the UN Environment Programme estimates that no fewer than 3,000 great apes are taken from the wild each year. 2 Because of these high losses and continuing population declines, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists great apes and gibbons as either endangered or critically endangered on its Red List of Threatened Species. These categories denote species that are “very likely” to become extinct in the wild or face an “extreme high risk” of extinction, respectively. There are seven species of great apes (excluding humans), divided into four genera – gorillas, orangutans, chimpanzees and bonobos. They inhabit areas of central Africa and South East Asia, and tend to live in humid mountainous areas and forests. Gibbons, part of the family of lesser apes, comprise 16 species, all of which are native to the tropical and subtropical forests of South East Asia.

Missoula, MT: Legal Atlas, 2018. 191p.