By Philip J. Cook, and Rosanna Smart

In the United States, the legal status of the 30 to 40 million annual firearms transactions is defined by state and federal regulations. These regulations primarily aim to reduce criminal misuse while preserving access for the large majority of adults who lack a serious criminal record or are otherwise proscribed from possession. Illegal firearms transactions are embedded in the “formal market”—sales, mostly of new guns, by licensed retail dealers required to screen purchasers and maintain records—and the “informal market,” where any of the 80 million gun owners may act as a source. A growing fraction of illegal transactions involve privately made firearms, fabricated from commercial kits or additive manufacturing techniques. The
firearms used by proscribed people are diverted from the legal supply chain, in some cases by professional intermediaries (thieves, straw purchasers, scofflaw dealers, home fabricators). Subsequent redistribution may involve professional brokers and traffickers. Most such enterprises are small in scale, with organized criminal groups serving primarily as customers rather than distributors. Compared with the drug trade, the illegal gun market is smaller and more exposed to law enforcement. For proscribed buyers, transaction costs are highly
differentiated, varying based on the local prevalence of guns, state regulations and enforcement, and individual connections. While preventing dangerous people from obtaining guns is intrinsically difficult in a regime designed for broad accessibility to most adults, regulations can substantially affect illegal commerce, and some regulations reduce criminal use.

By Tannuja Rozario, Abigail Hurst and Kate Reese

The United States is a nation of gun violence survivors. Each year, more than 19,000 people are murdered with firearms, and approximately 35,000 more sustain nonfatal gun assault injuries. Prior research demonstrates that survivors of firearm homicide experience profound disruptions to daily life, including financial strain and adverse mental, physical, social, emotional, and spiritual outcomes. These harms are often compounded in historically marginalized communities due to structural disadvantage and limited access to supportive
resources. Despite the prevalence of gun violence in the United States, relatively little research has examined survivors' trauma in the immediate aftermath of firearm homicide and its longer-term consequences. To address this gap, this study examines the short- and long-term social and psycholog experiences of the social and psychological trauma of firearm homicideical impacts of firearm homicide–related trauma, experiences of post-traumatic growth, and access to mental health services and support. Focus groups with 71 survivors of firearm homicide were conducted, and an intersectional analytic approach was employed to center populations underrepresented in the existing literature, including Black and Latinx survivors.
Findings reveal several key themes: The initial aftermath of firearm homicide shapes survivors’ coping trajectories, survivors express an enduring desire for safety, trauma is experienced collectively across
communities and shared identities, and many face persistent barriers to accessing support services. Together, these findings deepen understanding of gun violence as a source of enduring social trauma
and underscore the need for survivor-centered policies, services, and advocacy efforts.

By United Nations EMLER

In the present report, the International Independent Expert Mechanism to Advance Racial Justice and Equality in Law Enforcement examines how racism is embedded in drug control systems and shapes their impacts on Africans and people of African descent. It begins by exploring the root causes of racial discrimination in drug policy, including the legacies of colonialism, the racialization of drugs, the influence of militarized approaches and the “war on drugs”. The Mechanism then analyses manifestations of racial discrimination across the criminal justice system. Building on this analysis, it examines the intersection of drug policy with other grounds of discrimination, such as gender, highlighting how intersecting forms of discrimination can increase the risk of human rights violations. The Mechanism also identifies factors that exacerbate these harms and concludes by highlighting promising practices and policy approaches aimed at
addressing racial discrimination and advancing more equitable and rights-based drug policies. The present report also includes information on the activities of the Mechanism since its previous report.

By Alexander Ritzmann

This article is part four of CEP’s series on the violent extreme left in Europe. It focuses on antisemitism and eliminationist anti-Zionism within violence-oriented left-wing milieus. The article provides examples and analysis from France, Germany, Greece, Italy, and Spain and asks how antisemitic and anti-Zionist narratives can justify violence, connect extremist actors, or contribute to target selection. It concludes with policy recommendations for EU and national authorities on identifying, assessing, and responding to violence-oriented antisemitic extremism.

Key Findings
The Israel–Palestine conflict has become an additional mobilizing issue within parts of Europe’s existing violence-oriented extreme left. Several actors examined here have incorporated antisemitism and/or eliminationist anti-Zionism into established revolutionary, anti-imperialist, or antifascist agendas. Justifying violence as “resistance” is a recurring pattern. Some actors praise attacks or present militant action as a model for political action. The risk of violence increases when general support for “resistance” develops into endorsement of specific attacks, identification of concrete targets, or encouragement of further
violence. Target expansion is an important escalation indicator. In several cases, hostility moves from Israel and Israeli institutions toward businesses, organizations, and identifiable people described as “Zionists. Public lists, collection of identifying information, and intimidation reduce the distance between ideological hostility and physical targeting. Actors perform different functions: some legitimize violence, connect
groups, identify targets, or organize and conduct attacks. These functions can overlap without common leadership. Available statistics cannot establish the scale of antisemitic violence attributable to left-wing extremist actors across Europe. National systems measure different phenomena, and perpetrators’
affiliations often remain unknown.

By Mohammad H. Rahmati, David A. Hyman

Crime doesn't pay. Or does it? We study the role of expectations regarding sanctions and the likelihood of detection on whether people obey the law. We examine how expectations influence whether people obey the law and conduct simulations of various enforcement counterfactuals. We find the average assessment of the likelihood of detection is reasonably accurate, but those who (mistakenly) believe the probability is lower than it is are much more likely to break the law. Further, expectations with regard to the likely consequences of getting caught are also heterogeneous. In our simulations, perceived fines have little impact on willingness to break the law, but a higher perceived likelihood of apprehension has an appreciable impact. Because marginal respondents are pivotal in the rate of law-breaking, debiasing expectations among the whole population has little impact

By Gabriel Silveira de Queirós Campos, Américo Bedê Jr., Aline Pires de Angeli Ferreira

This article presents the findings of a quantitative study on sentencing practices in Brazil, focusing on the presence of numerical patterns and “penal clustering” in judicial decisions. Drawing on a dataset of criminal sentences from São Paulo—the country's most populous and active judiciary—the research statistically investigates whether Brazilian judges display preferences for certain sentence lengths, such as even numbers, “round numbers,” and multiples of 6 months. The study also examines the role of numerical fractions in shaping sentence variability. Despite Brazil's civil law tradition and the absence of formal sentencing guidelines, the results reveal a significant degree of penal clustering, with judges consistently relying on a narrow set of sentencing values. These patterns suggest the influence of cognitive heuristics, particularly “anchoring effects,” in sentencing decisions. While the use of numerical fractions may enhance consistency and predictability, it may also constrain individualization—raising concerns about mechanical decision-making and reduced responsiveness to case-specific circumstances. The article discusses the implications of these findings for judicial training, institutional reform, and public policy. It argues for a more data-informed and psychologically aware approach to sentencing, capable of balancing the dual demands of consistency and individualization within both common law and civil law traditions.

By Ian T. Adams, Kyle McLean, Geoffrey P. Alpert

Police body-worn cameras (BWCs) generate extensive video data on officer behavior, yet resource constraints mean that only a fraction of this footage is ever reviewed. Recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) present an opportunity to automate these reviews, potentially influencing police conduct. We evaluate the impact of AI-led auditing in two pre-registered, randomized controlled trials conducted within two large US police agencies. The findings are mixed but positive: In a department operating under a consent decree, officers exhibited significant reductions in substandard professionalism, whereas in an agency without external oversight, officers increased the frequency of highly professional interactions. These results show that AI auditing of BWC footage can influence officer behavior, with its effects shaped by organizational and institutional contexts.

By Kevin Petersen, Brian D. Johnson, Allison D. Redlich, Miranda A. Galvin

Extant research on criminal sentencing generally concludes that racial/ethnic disparity is concentrated in the “in–out” decision, and that racial differences in sentence lengths are small and inconsistent. However, sentence length analyses rarely focus on the fact that criminal sentences are often partially or fully suspended, creating situations in which the sentence formally imposed differs from the sentence served. In many jurisdictions, suspended sentencing is used widely and is a highly discretionary decision that carries considerable potential to mask racial inequality in punishment. This study uses 24 years of sentencing guideline data (2000–2023) from the state of Maryland to test for racial/ethnic disparity in the use of suspended sentences. Using a novel modeling approach capable of simultaneously estimating the probability of receiving a fully suspended sentence, a fully executed sentence, and variation in the proportion of the total sentence suspended, we test for racial disparities in the application of suspended sentencing outcomes. We identify significant and meaningful disparities in suspended sentences that are largest for minority defendants convicted at trial. However, we also find that this disparity has been declining over time. Ultimately, we emphasize the importance of distinguishing between active and suspended sentences in ongoing research on punishment inequalities.

By Lindsay Graef, Aurelie Ouss

Despite increasing attention to prosecutors' role in shaping criminal justice outcomes, there is limited empirical research on what prosecutors do. While most theories of prosecutorial discretion emphasize overarching goals related to justice and safety, our paper shifts the focus toward the practical realities of the job, particularly in the lower courts. We propose a case management model of prosecutorial discretion, grounded in analyses of misdemeanor cases handled by the Philadelphia District Attorney's Office. Importantly, our dataset includes hearing-level prosecutor identifiers and decisions. By adapting established benchmarking methods, we identify credible counterfactuals and analyze how prosecutor actions influence case and defendant outcomes. We find that prosecutors vary in their case management skills, which are an important driver of conviction. Defendants fare better under prosecutors who secure fewer convictions, indicating negative consequences of conviction, but prosecutors who secure fewer convictions tend to be less effective in their day-to-day case management tasks. This highlights a fundamental tension in a prosecutor's work: prosecutors meeting office standards demonstrate worse outcomes in terms of future criminal justice contacts. Our findings underscore the need to rethink what makes an effective prosecutor in order to achieve policy goals such as public safety, rehabilitation, and efficient resource use.

By William J. Schultz, Sandra M. Bucerius, Kevin D. Haggerty

Drug entry into prisons represents a serious issue for both incarcerated people and prison staff. Although substances enter prisons in many ways, staff drug smuggling represents a consistent problem facing correctional institutions globally. We draw on 131 interviews with correctional officers (COs) working in four Western Canadian prisons to analyze how COs understand and respond to drug smuggling. Participants drew on specific cultural narratives to portray coworkers who smuggled drugs, suggesting that CO occupational subcultures played a meaningful role in shaping how they perceived drugs, drug smuggling, and “dirty” correctional staff. Officers further detailed cultural narratives and frames they employed to detect and prevent drug trafficking among their peers. These included the informal social controls of boundary work and horizontal surveillance, which we analyze using Douglas’ concepts of purity and impurity. Participants justified such practices as efforts to reduce drug smuggling but also described how boundary work and horizontal surveillance stratified the CO population in distinctive ways. We conclude by discussing how CO cultures should influence our perceptions of staff drug smuggling.

By Francesco Calderoni, Jürgen Lerner, David Bright

This study examines how social embeddedness and multiplex relationships shape criminal collaboration within organized crime networks. Drawing on data from three major investigations into the ‘Ndrangheta, we analyze how kinship, clan affiliation, leadership, and prior interactions influence participation in meetings and phone calls. Using relational hyperevent models, we assess the dynamic and multiplex nature of these networks across time and investigations. Results show that kinship, leadership, and shared clan affiliation consistently increase the likelihood of interaction, with stronger effects for face-to-face meetings. Prior joint interactions also predict future collaboration, especially when the mode remains consistent. We find contrasting patterns of closure: meetings resist triadic closure, reinforcing exclusivity and hierarchy, whereas phone calls promote connectivity by bridging structural holes. By modeling multiple relational mechanisms simultaneously and across different networks, this study contributes to research on criminal embeddedness and the structural organization of illicit collaboration.

By Jason Robey, Matt Vogel

Social scientists have long been interested in understanding how age, period, and cohort effects shape long-term homicide trends. Yet fundamental measurement challenges remain pervasive in estimating age-specific homicide rates for birth cohorts. We begin by defining multiple alternative approaches for measuring homicide rates for birth cohorts, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. We empirically demonstrate substantial differences in the estimated cohort-specific homicide rates across alternative measurement approaches. These discrepancies are particularly large when using 5-year age categories and 5-year birth cohorts, with a nearly twofold difference in estimated homicide rates for 15- to 19-year-olds in some cohorts. Substantively, these discrepancies have consequences even for basic questions about homicide trends, including which birth cohorts had the highest homicide rates. We provide a framework for understanding why these discrepancies arise and propose the reconstructed cohort measurement approach as a practical solution to produce valid estimates given available data. Simulation analyses confirm this approach substantially outperforms approaches used in the prior literature. Lastly, we demonstrate that these measurement challenges can lead to fundamentally different results in regression models predicting cohort effects on homicide rates. Our results underscore how accurately measuring cohort-specific homicide rates is an essential, yet often overlooked, part of understanding homicide trends.

By Katheryn Russell-Brow

This article is based on Katheryn Russell-Brown's 2025 presidential address at the 85th annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, held in Washington, D.C. The article begins with an overview of the Author's approach to research and the highlights of her scholarly contributions. Following this, the article presents a research question—whether contemporary race and crime scholars and their scholarship have been stigmatized by the creation of a moral panic designed to marginalize and criminalize their work. This moral panic specifically targets Black history and other race-related scholarship. A criminological and sociological lens is used to analyze the breadth of the panic. Using moral panic as a base for the discussion, the next section examines the broad contours of stigma, and stigmatization and how race-related stigmas operate. Following this is a look at how negative stigmas assigned to race scholars and race scholarship harms the discipline of criminology. For instance, studies indicate that fewer scholars will embrace race and crime scholarship if its value is diminished. Migration studies and imagined futures are included in the assessment of how racial stigmas impact race scholarship. Academic disciplines benefit from rigorous engagement regarding their core principles and perspectives. The absence or diminishment of critical research creates a void in the criminology literature. This raises questions about the representativeness, integrity, and comprehensiveness of criminological scholarship. The article concludes with a charge to the discipline to ensure that race and crime scholarship remain a robust part of the criminological canon.

By Verónica Grondona, Markus Meinzer, Nara Monkam, Alison Schultz, Gonzalo Villanueva

This study presents a new, multidisciplinary method to assess countries’ vulnerabilities to illicit financial flows (IFFs) in different economic channels. Acknowledging that money laundering involves legitimate financial channels and regulatory gaps, our approach combines quantitative data on bilateral economic activities with a qualitative assessment of the regulatory frameworks of trade and investment partners. Using publicly available and contemporary data along with a legal analysis focused on the loopholes that can be exploited for IFFs, the proposed methodology addresses the limitations of current National Risk Assessments (NRAs) and offers an accessible and cost-effective approach that can be applied for anti-money laundering. We illustrate the effectiveness of our approach by analyzing IFF vulnerabilities in Nigerian inward foreign direct investment, Brazilian outward portfolio investment, and Indonesian imports demonstrating its potential to refine and enhance National Risk Assessments

By Mohammad Fazle Rabbi 

Environmental crime poses a significant threat to global ecosystems, biodiversity, and human well-being, encompassing activities such as pollution, illegal waste disposal, trade in protected species, and natural resource degradation. Understanding the dynamics of these crimes is essential for devising effective mitigation strategies and promoting sustainability at micro, meso, and macro level. The aim of the study is to examine environmental crimes in the EU, focusing on their current trends, patterns, and Intensity, as well as the impact on sustainability across its three dimensions. Fourteen EU countries environmental crime data from 2016 to 2021were analysed to reveal variations and trends. Geographic information systems (GIS) utilized to identify countries with elevated environmental crime rates, emphasizing the need for interventions in pollution control, waste management, and resource conservation. Results indicate high environmental pollution intensity in Italy, Sweden, and Denmark. Moreover, Italy emerges as the epicentre of illegal waste dumping, with notable cases also present in Belgium and France. Additionally, France, Slovakia, and Italy show alarming levels of illegal wildlife trade. Furthermore, France and Sweden exhibit the highest density of natural resource degradation cases. In addition, the study unveiled a positive correlation () between environmental pollution, trade in protected species, and natural resource degradation with population growth, while waste disposal exhibited a negative correlation (). Moreover, trade in protected species and resource degradation correlated negatively () with the poverty ratio. Addressing environmental crimes aligns with the pursuit of green justice, recognizing the interconnectedness of environmental, social, and economic factors. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, environmentalists, and communities, guiding interventions towards a sustainable and resilient future.

By Robert O. Motley Jr , Eric Williamson , Melissa McTernan , Sara Beeler c, Christopher P. Salas-Wright 

Purpose

Racism-based police violence (RPV) is an emerging public health concern. However, limited research has examined the relationship between RPV exposure and substance use, particularly among Black or African American and Hispanic emerging adults aged 18–29 years. This study assessed associations between lifetime RPV exposure across three domains (direct victimization, witnessing in person, and media-based exposure) and past 30-day and 12-month alcohol and cannabis use in this population.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted from August to October 2023 using a national nonprobability internet sample recruited via Qualtrics. The analytic sample included 936 Black or African American (48 %) and Hispanic (52 %) emerging adults. Negative binomial and logistic regression models were used to examine associations.

Results

Higher levels of RPV exposure were significantly associated with increased alcohol and cannabis use. RPV–Victim exposure was the strongest predictor of alcohol use, including past 30-day (IRR = 1.02, 95 % CI: 1.00–1.05) and 12-month (OR = 1.04, 95 % CI: 1.01–1.07) use. RPV–Witness exposure was most strongly associated with cannabis use, including past 30-day (IRR = 1.02, 95 % CI: 1.00–1.03) and 12-month (OR = 1.03, 95 % CI: 1.01–1.06) use. A dose-response pattern was observed across increasing levels of RPV exposure.

Conclusions

RPV exposure is a significant correlate of alcohol and cannabis use among Black or African American and Hispanic emerging adults. Findings suggest that perceived racialized policing is a significant risk factor for substance use and warrants further investigation as a potential structural determinant, highlighting it as an important target for public health interventions.

By The Centre of expertise on child sexual abuse (CSA Centre)

This resource introduces some of the key research and statistics on what is known about child sexual abuse: what it is, who harms children, where it takes place, the impact on children and, crucially, what you as a police professional can do in response. It is designed for all police professionals, whether you're the attending officer responding to a call or the officer assigned to a case. Throughout the 10 sections, you’ll find blue boxes containing key takeaways, prompts and signposts for you to consider when faced with concerns of child sexual abuse. At the end, there are links to other publications from the CSA Centre, which provide practical information and advice on understanding, identifying and responding to child sexual abuse. Remember, it is never a child’s responsibility to prevent abuse, protect themselves or make the abuse stop. But by better understanding child sexual abuse, having conversations and highlighting concerns, we can all play a role in better protecting children.

By Samantha Weston, Clare Griffiths and Anne-Marie Day 

Louise Casey’s review revealed a series of concerns about London Metropolitan Police concluding that institutional racism, misogyny and homophobia pervades across the whole organisation. Acknowledging that police legitimacy is under threat, some have called for the police to be defunded. Drawing on data collected via a survey and focus groups with children and young people from traditionally unheard minoritised groups attending a community-based programme, this article reveals low levels of satisfaction with and trust of the police among this group. In contrast, activities based and created within young people’s own communities provided opportunities to be safe, protected and among people they trusted. Drawing on Gramsci’s theory of hegemony, we suggest that the call to ‘defund the police’ may not be the radical alternative that many would have us believe and instead call to ‘refund civil society’ by advocating for a ‘community first’ approach to resolve complex social problems.

By Jeremy M. Wilson and Clifford A. Grammich

This publication illustrates elements of the police staffing challenge and explores how they form a broader ecosystem that agencies should consider when assessing staffing issues, contemplating goals and strategies, and implementing solutions. It presents a six-step approach for police workforce planning and managing workload demand and addresses planning for three common staffing scenarios.

By Rashad James

For community advocates, policymakers, and law enforcement agencies (LEAs) interested in exploring alternatives, this document outlines how federal immigration authorities can—and cannot—compel state and local LEAs to cooperate. It also proposes four strategies that state and local jurisdictions can adopt to resist the growing push for a uniform law enforcement system under executive authority. Specifically, jurisdictions can 1) name the actions currently underway; 2) claim their moral vision through proactive legislation; 3) restrain the use of local funding for immigration enforcement; and 4) reframe these initiatives as measures that strengthen public safety. Community members and elected leaders are encouraged to share this document as a pathway toward a more just and equitable future.